COMPONENT 2 WRITING Chapter 1 - 13

Chapter 1: Developing a Paragraph from Topic Sentences

There are many ways in which paragraph can be developed such as descriptive, developing by means of specific details and example. It also can be argumentative or persuasive. They may present facts or give example to support the topic sentences. Some paragraphs can be analytic, exploring cause and effect, or comparing and contrasting different things. The descriptive paragraph, for example may also be persuasive.

Descriptive paragraph

A descriptive paragraph attempts to persuade a reader about a particular point. Just as a thesis is the main idea and organizing principle of an essay, the dominant impression of descriptive paragraph is the overall impression it makes on an audience. A good descriptive paragraph is not just at random catalogue of fact about a subject it makes sense out of the descriptive details by showing how they convey a powerful impression of the subject. The specific detail help the reader to grasp the dominant or general impression that he was angry through the inclusion of specific details such as narrowed eyes, a tightly set or downturned mouth and drenched fists. When you develop a descriptive paragraph you can proceed in different ways. You can ask yourself what overall impression you want to convey and select details that suit your purpose or you can get down many different details and then find the overall impression developing from them.

Source:

Alice’s. (2006). Writing Academic Edition, Pearson Longman
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Chapter 2: Writing an Expository / Explanation Essay

Expository writing is a type of writing, the purpose of which is to inform, explain, describe, or define the author’s subject to the reader. Expository text is meant to deposit information and is the most frequently used type of writing by students in colleges and universities. Expository essay focused on its topic and list events in chronological order. For example are cooking instructions, driving direction, and instructions on performing a task. Key words such as first, after, next, then and last usually signal sequential writing. Personal pronouns may be used in such writing, if needed.

There are several types of expository essay:

Sequence essay

This sequence essay also known as the ‘process’ essay but not a collection and is a form of expository writing that is used if the author intent to inform his or her reader by listing the order of step in process or listing events in chronological order.

Descriptive essay

This essay enables reader to feel whatever you are describing. The writer should use all of the senses: sight, smell, touch, hearing and taste. Writer should also think about what makes the place you are describing important.

Where are all the other objects compared to the one you are describing?
What do you want the reader feel?
Is your essay descriptive enough to allow the reader to create a mental image in their mind?
What does the setting remind you?

All of the above criteria should include in the descriptive essay to make the essay more effective.

Classification essay:

Classification is an organizational strategy in which authors arrange group of object or ideas according to a common topic in detail. Placing different object or ideas in categories is a type of classification.

Cause and effect essay:

Cause and effect writing identifies the reason for something occurring and list what occur because of that reason. This is also known as analysis. Analysis occurs when a sentence describing the cause, is either next to, or combine with an effect. Or depicts a ‘causal chain’. Several event (causes) leading to another event (effect)

Sources:

Anonymous. (2008) Expository writing. Text/html [Online] Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expository_writing.html.

Anonymous. Expository essay and prompt Text/html [Online]. Available: http://www.geocities.com/soho/Atrium/1437/expo.html.
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Chapter 3: Thesis Statements

Formulating a Thesis or Main Idea

A thesis is a statement, often placed near the start of your essay, which expresses your point of view about the topic. It can state a definite opinion for or against something. We will discuss this type of thesis in future chapters, especially when we consider persuasive writing, which aims to convince an audience to accept a certain opinion, but other types of writing also need a central idea to give them a focus and make them a focus and make them comprehensible to a reader.

Directional Thesis

A thesis where a writer use in discussing a topic about which he or she does not have a definite opinion. The aim of this type of statement is to show the audience which way the essay is going, to point out what ideas and fact will be discussed, and to give shape and direction to the essay, but not to take a stand on a controversial matter.

A thesis restricts the scope of the essay to manageable limits. It prevents the essay from trying to do too many things and consequently not doing any of them well.
When formulating a thesis, remember the following considerations:

Narrowing and Focusing the Topic

-When we discussed narrowing and focusing previously, we were working toward developing the limiting and controlling main idea that makes a good thesis.

The Writer’s Purpose

-To a large extent, your thesis is shaped by what you intend to do in your essay.

The Writer’s Audience

-A thesis is also shaped to an extent by the writer’s audience. As noted before, one way to shape your writing is to ask what your readers need to learn about your subject and what you hope convey to them. By answering these questions, you are on the way to formulating a thesis.

Example:

Black Elk Speaks accurately represents Indian lifestyle through its attention to cultural detail, its use of Indian words and its direct quotes from Black Elk.

Sources:

Anonymous. Thesis statement Text/html [Online].available: http//www.uotawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/partopic.html.

Anonymous. Thesis statement Text/html [Online]. Available: http//:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thesis statement.
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Chapter 4: Topic Sentences

All three paragraphs start out well with a topic sentence. Topic sentences is a sentences whose main idea or claim control the rest of the paragraph, the body of a paragraph explains, develops or supports with evidence the topic sentences main idea or claim. The topic sentence is usually the first sentences of paragraph, but not necessarily. It may come for example, after transition sentence; it may even come at the end of paragraph.

Here are three important points to remember about a topic sentence:-

1. Topic sentence is a complete sentence; that is, it contains at least one subject and one subject and one verb. The following is not a complete sentence because it does not have a verb :-

How to register for college classes

2. A topic sentence contains both a topic and controlling idea. It names the topic and then limits the topic to a specific area to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph.

Topic controlling idea
Registering for college classes can be a frustrating experience for new students.

3. A topic sentence is the most general statement in the paragraph because it gives only the main idea. It does not give any specific details.

The Arabic origin of many English words is not always obvious.

Topic sentences are not the only way to organize a paragraph, and not all paragraphs need topic sentence. For example, paragraphs that describes. Narrates or details the steps in an experiment do not usually need topic sentences. Topic sentences are particularly useful for writers who have difficulties developing focused, unified paragraphs. Topic sentences help writer develop a main idea and perhaps most importantly, that help these writers stay focused and keep paragraphs manageable.

Example of topic sentence is:-

Soon after the spraying had ended (topic sentences 1) there were unmistakable sign that all was not well (topic sentences 2). Within two days dead and dying fish, including many young Salmon, were found along the banks of the stream. Brook trout also appeared among the dead fish, and along the roads and in the woods birds were dying. All the life of the stream was stilled (topic sentences 3). Before the spraying there had been a rich assortment of the water life that forms the food of salmon and trout.
Or
Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, not always have the same emotional meaning. For example, the stingy and frugal both means “careful with money”. However calling someone stingy is an insult, but calling someone frugal is a compliment. Similarly, a person want to be slender but not skinny, aggressive but not pushy. Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not synonymous at all.

Sources:

Anonymous. Topic Sentences Text/html [Online].Available.http//grammar.ccc.coment.edu/grammar/paragraphs.html.

Anonymous. Topic Sentence Text/html [Online]. Available: http//:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/topic sentence.

Anonymous. Topic sentence Text/html [Online]. Available: http//:www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writeent/hypergrammar/partopic.htm

lavane, F.1989. Writing with style, Rhetoric reader, Ivene Donanve
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Chapter 5: Preparing an Outline

How to write an outline

SAMPLE OUTLINE

I. Thesis: The negative effects of television are single parents put the responsibility to others, model of life interactions are exaggerated and children have high probability of damaging their eyes.

- The thesis is stated in the first section, which in the introduction.

II. Single parents put their responsibility to others.
A. Eager to spent time with their child
B. Kids’ freedom to do what they want
C. TV plays role like a babysitter
D. Kids learn more principle at young age
1. Observation
a. 100000 violent acts
b. 33000 murders

III. Model of life interaction are exaggerated
A. Sexual scenes may lead to early sexual contacts
B. They take it as a reality
C. Cause trauma to young consciousness
D. Produce unbalanced and unhealthy conduct
E. Numerous eating disorders
1. Cause diseases
a. Bulimia
b. Anorexia
c. Self-mutilation

IV. High probability of damaging they eye
A. Spoiling of their hearing
B. Watch per hours may give deep impact.
1. On the personality
2. Causing psychological
3. Psychological problems
C. Scared what they observe can cause
1. Depression
2. Emotional misbalance

- The body follows the introduction, and breaks down the points the author wishes to make.

- Note them some section have subdivisions, others do nit, depending on their demands of the paper.

- In this outline I, II, and IV all have similar structure, but this will not necessarily be true for a papers. Some may only have three major sections. Other more than five.

V. Conclusion :
The negative effects of television are single parents put their responsibility to others, model of life interactions are exaggerated and children have high probability of damaging their eyes.

- Your conclusion should restate your thesis, and never introduce new material.

Sources:

Anonymous. (2007). How to prepare an outline. Text/html [Online]. Available: http://www.albany.edu/eas/170/outline.html [2005 October 10]

Anonymous. (2007). Outline. Text/html [Online]. Available: http://www.essaywritinghelp.com/outline.html [2007 December 12]
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Chapter 6: Writing an Argumentative Essay

The argumentative essay, although bearing many similarities to the persuasive (argument) essay, has several distinct differences.

The argumentative essay may be formatted in several ways:

Example 1-Claim and Counter Claim

INTRODUCTION

- Introduce the topic and state or explain the question. State both the claim (your position) and the counter claim (the opposing position)
- Start building a strong case by refuting or disproving the opposing position.

- Use one paragraph to state each counter point, following your statement with related evidences that refutes the point.

- Present your case in the second section of the body.

- Use one paragraph to state each of your points, following your statement with the evidences that proves or supports your point.

- The conclusion of this format is a restatement of your claim and a summary of the information that supports it.

I. Introduction (claim and counter claim statement)

II. Body part I
A. First counter point and refuting information
B. Second counter point and refuting information
C. Third counter point and refuting information

III. Body part II
A. First point and supporting information
B. Second point and supporting information
C. Third point and supporting information

IV. Conclusion – Restatement of claim and summary of the main ideas


Example 2 – The Cluster Format

- Introduce the topic and state or explain the question.

- Start the first section of the body with your statement of claim or position.

- In this format, you begin by stating and supporting your points. Use one paragraph to state each of your points, following your statement with the evidence that proves or supports your point.

- Follow each point with an opposing view related to that point and evidence that supports the objection. Use one paragraph for each counter point and its evidences.

- After you have finished presenting all points, counter points and evidence and logic that shows why the objections are invalid. If the opposing view is valid, acknowledge it as so but use you evidences to show that it’s somehow unattractive and that your position is the more desirable of the two.

- Use one paragraph to rebut each counter claim.

- The conclusion of this format is a restatement of your claim, a summary of supporting information and an assessment of rebuttals.

I. Introduction (Claim and counter claim statement)

II. Body part I – Presenting the Case
A. Statement of the claim
B. First point and supporting information
C. First point opposition and refuting evidence.
D. Second point and supporting information
E. Second point opposition and refuting
F. Third point and supporting information
G. Third point opposition and refuting evidence

III. Body part II – Author’s rebuttal
A. First point rebuttal
B. Second point rebuttal
C. Third point rebuttal

IV. Conclusion

Example 3 – The Alternating Format

- Introduce the topic and state or explain the question.

- Start the body with your statement of claim or position.

- In this format, you begin by stating and supporting your points. Use one paragraph to state each of your points, following your statement with the evidence that proves or supports your point.

- Follow each point with an opposing view related to that point and evidence that supports the objection. Use one paragraph for each counter points and its evidence.

- Follow each objection with your rebuttal. Use one paragraph to rebut each counter claim.

- The conclusion of this format is restatement of your claim, a summary of supporting information and an assessment of rebuttals.

I. Introduction (Claim and counter claim statement)

II. Body
A. Statement of the claim
B. First point and supporting information
C. First point opposition and refuting evidence
D. First rebuttal and supporting information
E. Second point and supporting information
F. Second point opposition and refuting evidence
G. Second rebuttal and supporting information

III. Conclusion

Example of an Argumentative Essay

Television has become a member of almost every single family and our planet. Not just an ordinary member, but a very important one, because the time spent next to it other family member. You do not have to apply any efforts to talk or listen to complaints while communicating with it. You do not have to play with your little son after a hard working day.

You can simply turn the TV on everything is done: kids are quiet, your wife is not complaining and you feel absolute happy. It is so simple that it has become integral part of the culture of every family. It is senseless to deny the all-embracing negative effects the existence of television negative effects facts that are well known to every single parent, but are ignored by them in order to the responsibility for bringing up kids and showing them examples through interaction on the shoulders of somebody else. Contemporary parents work a lot, but when they come back home they are not eager to spend time with their child. The consequences of this fact are following: kids are given to themselves and watch everything they want or TV plays a role of a babysitter. Therefore children learn moral principles from the television, where by the age of 16 they observe 100,000 violent acts and 33,000 murders.

The modals of life interaction given in the television are very exaggerated and garbled. Children learn that they can gain what they want through being stronger and subordinating other people through killing and that even if you are a “good” guy killing is o.k. Statistics have proved that the growth of time spent next to the TV-set scales up the development of aggression. Many years before the examples of imitation for children were their own parent now these examples come from hit-thrillers and violent films where the personages imitated are cruel, impartial and often purely negative personages. Nowadays, resulting this phenomenon, children instead of playing leap-and-frog on the open air pretend to be “terminators” and run around “killing” each other. The fact of child’s identification with a “negative” destructive image has a vital impact on the development of his or her personality. Violence becomes an ordinary way on interaction, alongside with anger. Early exposure to sexual scenes may lead to early sexual contacts, with destroy the healthy development of child. Young people are pressured by such an amount of sexual scenes and these scenes normalize casual sexual encounters. They do not to evaluate what they see- they take it as the reality. All the listed above may cause a trauma to a young consciousness and in combination with the violence may produce an unbalanced and unhealthy conduct. We do not have to go far away for examples when kids get guns and go their schools shooting the teachers and schoolmates. This becomes a call to get somebody’s attention on them, the result on the TV violence and examples influences that overfills their minds. Television has also a great influence on the self-image of people watching. We see perfectly shaped bodies hundreds of times per day. All the men shown on the TV screen have big muscles and handsome, and all the women shown are very skinny and their faces and bodies look like a complete perfection. This can caused numerous eating disorders, especially in the teenage group. Such things are bulimia, anorexia and self-mutilation became a well- spread phenomenon.

A person especially a child that spends a lot of time next to the TV sets has a very high probability of damaging the eye mechanics and the ability to focus and pay attention. Another negative influence that is connected with the sight is the spoiling of the hearing due to the shortage of auditory stimulation. Even if the programs watched are not violent, if they watched per hours may have a deep impact on the personality, causing psychological and physiological problems. All the hidden effects in the films and commercials subconsciously depress children and grown-ups. Another reaction of a child the TV violence besides his aggression is fair. A child or a person may become so much scared of what they had observed in television that it might cause their depression and emotional misbalanced. Television prevents children from doing their homework and adults from completing their work influencing in a very bad manner the school grades and work productivity. It lowers the overage level of physical fitness of a person, breaking the coordination. Children being attached to the TV-set loose the possibility to the world through nature, games, sports, etc. They do not feel the world with all its colours and peculiarities. They do not read, and get acquainted with the unforgettable characters of Robinson Crusoe or Tom Sawyer. They do not learn the messages that a book carries inside. Due to that the personality of a person looses a very important piece and may not by call complete. Television has converted or lives into a nightmare. A nightmare where children kill not only the TV screen and adults lose their will sitting next to the TV-set eating “junk food”. It is a nightmare where violent television performs the role of the parents. What else can be said to show that television destroys the healthy development of a child’s personality. All the negative effects listed above concern grownups as well, but through the special sensitivity of children towards the influences we wanted to show to the full the destructive power of television. It has turned our lives into an addiction that suppresses the beauty our real life by the violent substitution. And can without any doubts be called one of the worst inventions of modern times.

Sources:

Anonymous (2007). The negative effects on television. Text/html [Online].Available: http://www.free essays.tv/Argumentative .html [2007 December 20]

Anonymous (2007). Writing an Argumentative essay. Text/html [Online].Available: http://www.essaywritinghelp.com/Argumentative .html [2007 December 12]
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Chapter 7: Summarizing

What Is It?

To summarize is to put in your own words a shortened version of written or spoken material, stating the main points and leaving out everything that is not essential. Summarizing is more than retelling; it involves analyzing information, distinguishing important from unimportant elements and translating large chunks of information into a few short cohesive sentences. Fiction and nonfiction texts, media, conversations, meetings, and events can all be summarized.

Steps to summarize:

1. Start by skimming the text to get an idea of what the text is about.
2. Cross out sentences that are not necessary or that are redundant to make it easy for us to pull out what is crucial to the message of the piece.
3. Mark key words and phrases and jot down notes about the main idea and look for signal words such as therefore, in conclusion, or in summary.
4. Verbally summarize the nonfiction piece to a peer.
5. Lastly, re-read the text and write a summary paragraph. State the text's main idea in the first sentence and include the important information. Don’t included our own opinions of their own or sentences word-for-word from the original text.

Example of a summary:

Watching television brings many negative effects to us. First, the time spent watching television is more than time spent together between the family members. For children, watching brings violent character to them when they watch too many violent movies. It also exposes children to early sexual contacts and influence on the self-image which cause numerous eating disorders. For a young child, watching television can damage their eyes, reduce the ability to pay attention and also damage their hearing due to the shortage of auditory stimulation. What we had observed on the television can cause depression and emotional imbalance and also lowers the average level of physical fitness of our body.

Sources:

Anonymous. (2002). How to summarize a passage. Text/html. [Online]. Available: http://www.teachervision.com/skill-builder/reading-comprehension/48785.html [2002 September 20]

Anonymous. (2001). Writing Across the World. Text/html [Online].Available: http://www.readwritethink.org/.html [2001 July 4]
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Chapter 8: Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing

· One way to use a text in your own writing without directly quoting source material.

A paraphrase is

§ Your own rendition of essentials information and ideas of expressed by someone else, presented in a new form.
§ One legitimate way when accompanied by accurate documentation to borrow from a source
§ A more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses on a single main idea.

Steps to effective paraphrasing:

1. Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.
2. Set the original aside and write your paraphrase on a note card.
3. Write a key word or phrase to indicate the subject of your paraphrase.
4. Check your rendition with the original to make sure that your version accurately expresses all the essential information.
5. Use the quotation marks to identify any unique term of phraseology you have borrowed exactly from the source.
6. Record the source (including the page) on your note card so that you can credit it easily if you decide to incorporate the material into your paper.

Examples of paraphrasing

Original passage:

The base of the tomorrow’s society is children today. And the way they develop depends on how are world is going to look like tomorrow.

Paraphrased:

The developments of children depends on the society surrounding them as they will be the future generation for the society

Original passage:

The fact of child’s identification with a negative destructive image has a vital impact on the development of his or her personality. Violence becomes an ordinary way of interaction alongside with anger.

Paraphrased:

Anger will develop the identify of someone to become violence and this will give bad impact especially to the child’s identification

Original passage:

A person especially a child that spends a lot of time next to the TV-set has a very high probability of damaging their eyes mechanics and ability to focus and pay attention.

Paraphrased:

Many negative effects such as damaging their eyes mechanics if the person especially children spend their time in front of television

Original passage:

Television prevents children from doing their homework and adults from completing their work, influencing in a very bad manner the school grades and work productivity. It lowers the average level of physical fitness of a person breaking coordination.

Paraphrased:

Television makes children’s from finish their homework, adults not completing their works and will affect their school grades and work productivity. The physical fitness of a person will be decreased.

Original passage:

All the negative effects listed above concern grownups as well, but through the special the sensitivity of children’s towards the influences we wanted to show to the full the destructive power of television. It has turned our lives into an addiction that suppresses the beauty of our real life by the violent substitution. And can without any doubt be called one of the worst inventions of the modern times.

Paraphrased:

Television has given many bad impacts to all the society especially to the children because it changes the identity and developments of the children. No wonder, if television will be called as the worst technologies of modern times.

Sources:

Anonymous. (2007). Paraphrase: Write It in Your Own Words. Text/html [Online].Available:http://www.library.duke.edu/research/plagiarism/cite/paraphrase.html [2007 November 10]

Anonymous. (2007). Paraphrase. Text/html [Online]. Available: http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/paraphrase.html [2009 September 13]
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Chapter 9: Writing a Discussive Essay

What is a Discussive essay?

A discussive essay or known as discursive essay is a piece of formal writing presenting a discussion on a particular problem.

Types of a discussive or discursive essay

1. Opinion essay: it requires the author’s opinion on a topic which is stated in the introductory paragraph
2. For and against essay: it represents a reader with a through consideration of the topic from opposing point of view.
3. Essay suggestion solution to a problem: it discusses problem and find their solution.

Components of a discussive or discussive essay

1. Title
- Contain key words about content and process.
2. Introduction
- This introduces the issues to be discussed and give essential background information.
3. Main body
- You should use evidence to support and challenge the issue you cover in this section, referencing your source appropriately.
4. Conclusion
- This sums up how the points in the body of your essay have made a case both for and against the argument.

Source:

Anonymous. (2009). Discussion Essay-Enlighten, Express, Explain! [Online]. Available:http://www.discussion_essay.php.htm.enow.com.html.[2009, September 11]
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Chapter 10: Synthesizing

Synthesizing is an important and complex skill require in academic writing. It involves combining ideas from a range of sources in order to group and present common ideas or argument. It is a necessary skill used in essay, literature review and other form of academic writing.

Unlike summarizing and paraphrasing, this only used one author’s ideas at a time. Synthesizing combines ideas from one than one text or source.

Synthesizing allows you to:
1. Combine information and ideas from multiply sources to develop and strengthen your arguments.
2. Demonstrate that you have read widely on the topics.
3. Use and cite multiply sources.

How to synthesize

1. Read revelent material.
2. Make brief note using key point or keyword. This make easier to compare and contrast relevant information.
3. Identify common ideas.
4. Cite (references) the entire author you have used.

Writing a synthesis from notes

Supporting the contention that English is the dominant world language, Bond (2002) and Robertson (2003) point out its importance as the medium of international communication in business, technology and other global forums. However, other argue that despite its apparent dominance, English is not the global language when the number of native speakers of other language, e.g. Chinese are considered (Havir 1999: Kerstjens 2000).

Source:
Anonymous. [n.d]. Synthesizing. [Online]. Available: http://www.disweb.rmit.edu.au/isu/content/4_writingskills/writing_tuts/synthesizing_LL/model.html.[2009, September 11]
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Chapter 11: Documenting

What to document?

· Document all contributions made by other writers whose work you are drawing from. These contributions include the following :

a. A direct quote from a source, whether primary or secondary.
b. A summary or paraphrase of a source.

What not to document

a. Your own ideas
b. Common knowledge (i.e. what an average college graduate who has not done this research would know – e.g. Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
c. Information that you have seen in multiple sources (Shakespeare’s plays were actually written by Queen Elizabeth),(Shakespeare died in 1616 – unless this information is controversial)

Things to keep in mind while doing research

a. Use direct quotes sparingly. The more that you summarize and paraphrase the better because this is your voice.
b. Close paraphrase are the most common form of plagiarism. To avoid this, read your source, close your book takes notes from memory. Then reopen your book and check your notes accuracy.

Specifics
a. Documenting means following complex rules. It also depends on what discipline you are writing in, and most importantly, what your instructor expects.
b. Documenting sources consists of two parts :
i. The individual documentation of each quote or paraphrase.
ii. A list of works that you have cited or consulted.

Cited words or ideas that are not your owns

1. Whenever you refer to another’s author research, cite the original source. To site sources using APA format, give the author’s last name and the date of publication. If the author’s name is already mentioned in the sentence, parentheses may include the year only. When more than one author is cited, the symbol “&” is used in parentheses before the final author’s name. Do not use “et al.” unless there are three or more authors, all of whom were listed in previous citation in your paper. When there are six or more authors, use “et al.” in the first and all subsequent citations.

Examples:

o In a recent study of reaction times (Rogers,1994)
o Roger (1994) compared reaction times
o In another study (Hashroudi,Chrosniak, & Schwartz,1991)
o Confirming their hypothesis, Hashroudi et al. (1991) found

2. After quotation, include the page number in your internal documentation. A parenthetical citation following quotation or paraphrase should include the author’s last name, the date of the source, and the page number. If the author’s name and the date are mentioned in your remarks prefacing the quotation, place only the page number in parentheses. Make sure to enclose short quotations (fewer than 40 words) inside quotation marks.

Example:

One researcher found that “the placebo effect”... disappeared when behaviors were studied in their manner” (Miele, 1993, p.276)

3. Long quotations (longer than 40 words) are presented in block format. Begin the quoted material on a new line and indent five spaces from the left. Double space and do not use quotation marks.

Example:

Miele (1993) found the following:

The “placebo effect”, which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner. Furthermore, the behaviors were never exhibited again, even when drugs were administered. Earlier studies, (e.g. Abdullah, 1994; Fox, 1979) were clearly premature in attributing the results to a placebo effect. (p.276)

Sources:

Anonymous. (2009). Documenting Sources. [Online]. Available: http://www.gmv.edu/departments/writingcenter/handouts.documents.html.%5b2009,September,11]

Anonymous. (2009). Documenting. [Online]. Available: http://www.ccis.edu/department/Writing Center/documents/apa.html.[no date]
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Chapter 12: Editing Skills

Editing is the process of selecting and preparing language, images, sound, video, or film through processes of correction, condensation, organization, and other modifications in various media. A person who edits is called an editor. In a sense, the editing process originates with the idea for the work itself and continues in the relationship between the author and the editor. Editing is, therefore, also a practice that includes creative skills, human relations, and a precise set of methods.

Error 1: Commas in introductory element
Rule: When a sentence opens with an introductory word, phrase or clause, readers usually need a small pause between the introductory elements and the main part of the sentence. This pause is most often signaled by a comma.

Examples:
1. Incorrect: Within time I was playing basketball like a professional.
Correct: Within time, I was playing basketball like a professional.
2. Incorrect: Some people eat to live others live to eat.
Correct: Some people eat to live, others live to eat.

Error 2: Use pronouns to refer to nouns in an agreement
Rule: These nouns are called antecedents, and pronouns should always agree with their antecedents.

Example:
1. Incorrect: The team believed they could win.
Correct: The team believed it could win.

Error 3: Write sentences that are not parallel
Rule: The elements that should be parallel in this sentence are the verbs, wrote, mailed, and poured. They are all past tense. The verb "had poured" is not parallel with the other verbs in the sentence. It is past perfect.

Examples:
1. Incorrect: Earlier this morning, she wrote three letters, mailed them and had poured her a cup of coffee.
Correct: Earlier this morning, she wrote three letters, mailed them and poured herself a cup of coffee.
2. Incorrect: A lawyer should be logical, articulate and have a quick wit.
Correct: A lawyer should be logical, articulate and quick-witted.

Word Choice

1. Who, whom
These are two pronouns that are often used incorrectly, particularly in spoken English. Who is the subjective case and should be used as the subject of a sentence or clause.

Examples:
a. Who is free to run an errand?
b. I don't know who can do that.
Whom is objective and should be used as the object of a sentence, phrase or clause.

Examples:
a. Whom do you trust?
b. The coach was disappointed in Smith, of whom he expected much.

2. Like as, as if
These words are often use interchangeably and consequently incorrectly. Like is a preposition and should have an object. As and as if are conjunctions and should be used to join clauses. The problem most often arises when like is used as a conjunction.

Example:
Incorrect: I pretended like I knew what I was talking about.
Correct: I pretended as if I knew what I was talking about.

3. Comparatives and superlatives
A comparative form of an adjective is usually made either by adding er to the end of the word or by putting more in front of it. The superlative form is made by adding est to the end of the word or by putting most in front of the word. One of the rules for using comparatives and superlatives is that a comparative form should refer to only two objects. A superlative form should refer to three or more objects.
Examples:
Incorrect: He looked at the map for Midville and Danville and found that Midville is the closest city to us.
Correct: He looked at the map for Midville and Danville and found that Midville is the closer city to us.

4. Gerund Phrases
Verbs that end in ing and function as nouns. Gerund phrases can act as nouns in a sentence, as in the following:

Example:
a. Writing a good advertisement takes some creativity.
The phrase, "Writing a good advertisement," is a gerund phrase because it contains a gerund and is the subject of the sentence.
b. Writing is a difficult task for many people.
The word "writing" is a gerund because it is a form of the verb "write." It does not act as a verb in the sentence, however. Rather, it is the subject of the sentence.

5. Use of pronouns after like or as
When pronouns occur after the conjunctions than or as, they should be subjective pronouns if they are the subject of an understood verb.
Examples:
I had a better understanding of the subject than he (did).Mary cannot recite the Gettysburg Address as fast as I (can).

Proper use of words

Less, fewer.
Use fewer with countable items; use less with amounts or things not countable.Affect, effect.
Effect is a verb meaning to produce change, or it is a noun meaning result. Affect is almost always a verb that means to pose or to influence, but it can also be a noun referring to an emotional state. These are two of the most confusing words in English, but careful writers will learn to sort them out.
Like, as.
As is used to introduce clauses; like is a preposition and requires an object.Principal, principle.
Principal means someone or something first in rank, authority, or importance. 'Principle' means a fundamental truth, law or doctrine.Over, more than.
Over and under are best used for spatial relationships. When using figures, more than and less than are better choices.Whose, who's.
Who's is the contraction of who is. Whose is the possessive form of whoIts, it's.
It's is the contraction of it is. Its is the possessive form of the word it.Lay, lie.
Lie is a state of being, while lay is the action word. Lay needs an object to be used correctly.Your, you're.
Your is a pronoun which means belonging to you; you're (a pronoun plus a verb) is a contraction of you are.There, they're, their.
Their is a possessive pronoun; there is an adverb indicating direction; they’re a contraction of the words they and are.
Medium, media.
Medium is the singular form of this word and requires a singular verb; media is the plural form and requires a plural verb.Accept, except.
Except means exclude; accept means to receive.

Spelling and plurals
When a word ends with a consonant and then a -y, the -y is changed to -i and an -es is added (example: army, armies).
When a word ends in a vowel and a -y, you can simply add an -s for the plural (example: bay, bays).
· Compound words without hyphens simply take an -s on the end (cupful, cupfuls), but compound words with a hyphen take the -s on the significant word (son-in-law, sons-in-law).
Never use -'s to form the plural of a word that is fully spelled out.

Tips to improve editing skills

One can improve editing skills by keeping a pocket style manual near your writing space. Such manuals often include common grammatical mistakes, lists of words that are easily confused like “affect/effect,” and pointers on punctuation. Many word processing programs also have grammar programs available, which may point out obvious mistakes or spelling errors.

Editing skills often improve when people read their papers aloud to someone else. Alternately, another person can read a paper to you. Reading should be done slowly so that one can catch missing words and typos. Many find that reading aloud to yourself is not quite as productive, because your mind may naturally fill in missing words or overlook typos.

If you cannot read your work aloud to someone else, then read the paragraphs out of order. Alternately, read each sentence starting from the bottom of your work, and work backwards. This process halts the brain from filling in the blanks because the sentences are read out of context. This can be an excellent exercise for improving editing skills.

A few tips for improving editing skills are the following:
1. Know or possess a list of the most commonly misspelled words.2. Avoid using commas to separate two independent phrases, called comma splicing.3. Avoid using the verb to be, which is called passive construction.4. Strive for clarity by avoiding complicated words.5. Vary sentence length.6. Know a paragraph should work out one idea only.7. Clearly state your central idea at the beginning of paragraphs.8. When possible, let someone else read your work aloud to you, and comment on your work.

Sources:

Anonymous. (2009). Answer. [Online].Available: http://www.answers.com/topic/editing-2#cite_note-1.[2009,October,2nd]

Anonymous. (2009). Editing Skills. [Online].Available: http://www.wisegeek.com/how-can-i-improve-my-editing-skills.html.%5bno date]

Anonymous. (2009). JProf. [Online].Available: http://www.answers.com/topic/editing-2#cite_note-1.[2009,October,2nd]
____________________________________

Chapter 13: In-text citation/References

APA Citation Style

APA style defines that the reference section may only include articles that are cited within the body of an article. This is the distinction between a document having a Reference section and a bibliography, which may incorporate sources which may have been read by the authors as background but not referred to or included in the body of a document.

Journal Article: paginated by issue, online and hardcopy

Devine, P. G., & Sherman, S. J. (1992). Intuitive versus rational judgment and the role of stereotyping in the human condition:

Kirk or Spock? Psychological Inquiry, 3(2), 153-159. doi:10.1207 /s15327965pli0302_13
Journal Article: paginated by volume, website without a DOI

Hodges, F. M. (2003). The promised planet: Alliances and struggles

of the gerontocracy in American television science fiction of the

1960s. The Aging Male, 6, 175-182. Retrieved from

http://www.informaworld.com/TheAgingMale
Magazine Article

Mershon, D. H. (1998, November/December). Star trek on the brain: Alien minds, human minds. American Scientist, 86(6), 585.
Newspaper Article
Di Rado, A. (1995, March 15). Trekking through college: Classes explore modern society using the world of Star trek. Los Angeles Times, pp. A3, A20-A22.

Newspaper Article Website

Ebert, R. (2009, May 6). [Review of the motion picture Star trek, produced by Paramount, 2009]. Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved

from http://rogerebert.suntimes.com
Books : with author

Okuda, M., & Okuda, D. (1993). Star trek chronology: The history of the future. New York, NY: Pocket Books.

Books : no author
Star trek: Four generations of stars, stories, and strange new worlds. (1995). Radnor, PA: News America Publications.
Book Article or Chapter

James, N. E. (1988). Two sides of paradise: The Eden myth according to Kirk and Spock. In D. Palumbo (Ed.), Spectrum of the fantastic (pp. 219-223). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Encyclopedia Article

Sturgeon, T. (1995). Science fiction. In L. T. Lorimer et al. (Eds.), The encyclopedia Americana (Vol. 24, pp. 390-392). Danbury, CT: Grolier.
ERIC Document

Fuss-Reineck, M. (1993). Sibling communication in Star trek: The next generation: Conflicts between brothers. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED364932)

Websites
Epsicokhan, J. (2004, February 20). Confessions of a closet trekkie. Retrieved October 12, 2009, from Jammer's Reviews website: http://www.jammersreviews.com/articles/confessions.php

Websites : with corporate author in the same website
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2009, May 28).

NASA astronaut watches new Star trek movie in space.

Retrieved From http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station

/behindscenes/star_trek .html

Websites : with corporate author in the different website
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Jet Propulsion Laboratory. (2007, May 10). Mission could seek out Spock's home planet. Retrieved from PlanetQuest: Exoplanet Exploration

website:http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/news/planetVulcan.cfm

Websites : with no author
The Roddenberry legacy of human potential: If only, if only. (2007, October 24). Retrieved January 7, 2009, from Star Trek Official Site website: http://www.startrek.com/startrek/view/news/editorials /article/2310913.html

Wiki
Star trek planet classifications. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved January 7, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek_planet _classifications
Blog
Zompist. (2009, September 30). Star wars: Hope not so new anymore [Web log message]. Retrieved from http://zompist.wordpress.com /2009/09/30/star-wars-hope-not-so-new-anymore/
Internet Video

Crusade2267. (2006, November 02). For the uniform: One fan's obsession with Star trek, part 1 [Video file]. Retrieved from http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=ul5q4PTME-M
PowerPoint Presentation

Oard, D. W. (2001). Bringing Star trek to life: Computers that speak

and listen [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from University of

Maryland TerpConnect website:

http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~oard/papers/cpsp118t.ppt

Parenthetical References

The sources that you use should be cited in the text of your paper, either in a parentheses or as part of the text itself.
Example:
During the turbulent 1960s, science fiction programs on television reflected the public's attitudes toward the older generation (Hodges, 2000).

Hodges (2000) discussed how, during the turbulent 1960s, science fiction programs on television reflected the public's attitudes toward the older generation.

In a 2000 article, Hodges discussed how, during the turbulent 1960s, science fiction programs on television reflected the public's attitudes toward the older generation.

The references above refer to the entire source in a general way. If you are referring to a specific part of the source - or quoting exactly - include the specific page number(s) of that part:
Example:
(Hodges, 2000, p. 179)

(Devine & Sherman, 1992, pp. 156-157)

Document has a corporate author:
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 2007, para. 3)

Document has no author:
("The Roddenberry Legacy," 2007, paras. 5-6)
(Star Trek: Four Generations, 1995, pp. 63-66)
("Star Trek Planet Classifications," n.d., Other Classes section, para.2)

Sources with three through five authors.
(Kirk, Spock, McCoy, & Scott, 1966, p. 1701)
(Kirk et al., 1966, p. 1701)

Sources with six authors or more:
(Picard et al., 1987, p. 1701d)

Citation

Reference citations in text are done using parenthetical referencing. Most usually, this involves enclosing the author's surname and the date of publication within parentheses, separated by a comma, generally placed immediately after the reference or at the end of the sentence in which the reference is made.
However, it is also common for the authors to be the subject or object of a sentence. In such a case only the year is in parenthesis. In all cases of citation, author name(s) are always followed immediately by a year, and years are never presented without author name(s) immediately preceding it. In the case of a quotation, the page number is also included in the citation.
Full bibliographic information is then provided in a Reference section at the end of the article.

Single author
Format should be Author's last name followed directly by a comma, then the year of publication. When one makes the reference to the author(s) directly as a part of the narrative, then only the year (and page number if needed) would remain enclosed within parentheses. The same holds for multiple authors.

Examples:
1. A recent study found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling, 2005).
2. Pauling (2005) discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism.

Two authors
Authors should be presented in order that they appear in the published article. If they are cited within closed parentheses, use the ampersand & between them. If not enclosed in parentheses then use expanded "and".

Examples:
1. A recent study found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling & Liu, 2005).

2. Pauling and Liu (2005) discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism.

Three to five authors
With three to five authors, the first reference to an article includes all authors. Subsequent citations in the same document may refer to the article by the principal author only plus "et al”. However , all authors must be present in the references section.

Examples:
1. A recent study found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling, Liu, & Guo, 2005).

2. Pauling, Liu, and Guo (2005) conducted a study that discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism.

3. Pauling et al. (2005) discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism.

4. A recent study found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling et al., 2005).

Six authors or more
The correct format is (First Author et al., Year). In the reference section, all six authors' names should be included.

Example:
1. Pauling et al. (2005) discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism.

Multiple publications, same author
If an author has multiple publications that you wish to cite, you use a comma to separate the years of publication in chronological order (oldest to most recent). If the publications occur in the same year, the Publication Manual recommends using suffixes a, b, c, etc. (note that corresponding letters should be used in the reference list, and these references should be ordered alphabetically by title).

Examples:
1. Recent studies have found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling, 2004, 2005a, 2005b).

2. Pauling (2004, 2005a, 2005b) has conducted studies that have discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism

Multiple publications, different authors
Follow the rules for one author above, and use a semicolon to separate articles. Citation should first be in alphabetical order of the author, then chronological.

Example:
1. Recent studies found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Alford, 1995; Pauling, 2004, 2005; Sirkis, 2003)

Direct quotes
The same rules as above apply here, the format being (Author, Year, Page Number).

Example:
1. When asked why his behavior had changed so dramatically, Max simply said, "I think it's the reinforcement" (Pauling, 2004, p. 69).

Sources:

APA Style. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved October 13, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_style

Schwartz, B.D. (2010). APA Citation Style. Retrieved October 13, 2009, from Long Island University website: http://www.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workshop/citapa.htm