COMPONENT 1 READING Chapter 1 - 13

Chapter 1: Prediction

· Prediction is an important reading skill as it will enable you to enhance your understanding of text by anticipating what will happen next.
· Predicting can be done by using what you know about the text: plot, setting, character, issues and relating them to your own knowledge to figure out possible outcomes.
· For example, if you are watching a film or TV programme about a lawyer, you can predict that the defense lawyer will say that his client is ‘not guilty’ and give reasons. Here are some phrases and predictions about the words that will follow:

‘I think’ + an opinion.
‘I am afraid that’ + bad news.
‘Next’ + another topic or point.

· Things that you need to take note of to help you make prediction while listening:

(a). Discourse markers:
i. Firstly, finally, however, so, then, eventually.
(b). Transitional phrases:
i. The point that I want to make…. …
ii. The important thing here is… …

Source:

Kenneth, B. (1997). Inference. [Online]. Available: http://esl.about.com/library/lessons/blscan. html. [2009 September 11].
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Chapter 2: Scanning

· Scanning is a reading skill used to find specific information quickly. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases.
· When scanning, do not read everything in detail. We only look for keywords or concentrate on certain parts. Ignore other unrelated information.
· This skill is often used when looking up a word in dictionary.

Tips for better scanning

· When scanning, look for author’s use of organizer such as number, letter, steps or sequence connector such as first, second or next.
· Selectively read and skip through section of passage.
· Use reading and any other aids that will help you identify which section might contain the information you are looking for.
· Do not read anything in detail. Let your eyes move quickly across the page until you find what you are looking for. Look for key words or concentrate on certain parts.
· In the examination, you will focus your attention on the relevant parts depending on the questions asked.

Source:

John. W. (2005). Inference. [Online]. Available: http://www.yourdictionary.com/scanning [2009 September 11]
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Chapter 3: Finding Meaning From Context

Using the parts of speech of the unknown word as a help in reading

The words around the unknown word give you clues. Once you know if the word is a noun or it is an adjective, it is often enough for you to continue reading intelligently without having to stop to look up for the meaning of the word. After coming across the word a few more times, you know its meaning more firmly than if you had just looked up.

Using other clues from the text itself

They are found directly within a sentence, paragraph, passage or chapter. Being able to recognize these clues help you define new words in context. These clues are found right in the text and can be words or punctuation marks or specific word or phrase. Use them to compare words or to identify unknown word that mean the same or the opposite of words you already know.

1. Punctuation clues
Given when the unknown word is set by commas, parentheses, bracket or dashes. The information certainly within the punctuation marks sometimes means the same or nearly the same as the unknown words. Information set by punctuation marks may clarify rather than define the word.
Example of Punctuation Clue: Nicotine, a colorless and oily drug in tobacco, stains the teeth of chain smokers.
Explanation: The words between the commas-a colorless and oily drug in tobacco-define nicotine.

2. Definition clues
Join the unknown word with the word(s) that rename it or tell its meaning. The clues proceed of follow word that are or act like linking verbs
Examples of these verbs: is, was, are, means, i.e. (this is), involves, is called, that is, or resembles
For example: The mansion's piazza resembled a large uncovered patio.
Explanation: The word resembled joins piazza with its meaning so it is a clue that lets us know that a piazza is a large uncovered patio.

3. Contrast clues
You use the opposite of known information to determine the information to determine the unknown word. Connecting words like however, yet, on the other hand, instead of, but, while, and although join the unknown word with another word that is its opposite.

Example of Contrast Clue:
My sister is extremely neat in appearance while she is slovenly in her housekeeping.

Explanation: The word "while" indicates that slovenly means the opposite of neat. Thus, slovenly means sloppy or messy.

4. Comparison Clues
Comparison clues indicate that two or more things are alike. A comparison is possible because the known and unknown words have similarities. Words like similarly, as well as, both, and likewise show you that comparisons can be made.
Example of Comparison Clue:
Miss Johnson is a prim, modest woman; likewise, many of her friends are very proper.

5. Example Clues
Example clues tell you an example of an unknown word follows. You derive the meaning of the unknown word by determining what the examples have in common. Example clues are usually introduced by the following words and phrases: such as, such, other, for example, and like.

Example of "Example" Clue: Potentates-such as kings, queens, and emperors-are very powerful and wealthy people.

Explanation: Since kings, queens, and emperors are the rulers of countries, potentates are rulers.

Source:
Frank.G. (1997). Inference. [Online]. Available: http//eslteachersboard.com. [2009 September 11]
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Chapter 4: Inference

Inference is the act or process of deriving a logical consequence conclusion from premises.

Inference is studies within several different fields:

1. Human inference (i.e. how human draw conclusion) is traditionally studied within the field of cognitive psychology.
2. Logic studies the law of valid inference.
3. Statisticians have developed formal rules for inference (statistical inference) from quantitative data.
4. Artificial intelligence researchers develop automated inference system.

Inductive inference

1. The process by which a conclusion is inferred from multiple observations is called inductive reasoning.
2. The observation may be correct or incorrect, or correct within a certain degree of accuracy, or correct in a certain situation.
3. Conclusions inference from multiple observations may be tested by additional observations.
Example:
I. 3=5+8 and 8 is an even number. Therefore an odd number added to another odd number will result in an even number.
II. This ice is cold.(or all ice I have touches was cold)

Deductive inference

1. Process by which a conclusion is logically inferred from certain premises is called deductive reasoning.
2. This method of inference is even more accurate than the specific method, because mistake are usually detected by mathematicians and corrected.
Example:
I. All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.
II. All fat people are Greek. John Lennon was fat. Therefore, John Lennon was Greek.

Valid inference

1. Philosophical logic has attempted to define the rules of proper inference. i.e. the formal rule that, when correctly applied to true premises, lead to true conclusion.

Sources:

Flemming. L. (2000). Reading keys. Boston New York: Houghton Mifflin.

Anonymous. (2009). Inference. [Online]. Available: http// www.wikipedia.com.my. [2009, Sept 11]
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Chapter 5: Recognizing an issue in an argument

Arguments

Arguments is a term often incorrectly applied to quarrels, in which mere assertion and name-calling replace the rational presentation of opinion and the responsible meeting of opposing viewpoints. Quarrels can takes place over an issue, but responsible and effective argument is impossible in certain areas:
· We can’t argue about facts. For example, that the American Revolution occurred is beyond dispute; we are no longer ruled by Great Britain. Although it is impossible to argue about the significance of facts or the probability that a given assertion is a fact, verified matters are not matters og opinion.
· We can’t argue about the impossible. For example, that men should be the ones to bear children is not an arguable.
· We can’t argue about preferences. Preferences resemble opinions, but they are neither formed nor changed by logic. For example, that rap music is better than rock music, that baseball is more grateful ballet, and that rock music, that baseball is more grateful than ballet, and that long hair is ugly on men all matters of preference, not matters of rational debate.
· We can’t argue about beliefs that lie beyond rational or empirical proof, such as religious faith.

How to recognize an argument

Firstly in your first reading, mark the words you don’t know or are unsure of while you proceed rapidly though the essay. Next, use your dictionary to make sure you understand the particular ways in which the writer uses his or her terms. Get in the habit of noting definitions in the margin and making other notes there as well.
Then read the essay carefully, several times if necessary, while making more elaborate notes. For example, translating a writer’s arguments into summaries is worth a dozen rereading, because you are rereading the material activity. As an active reader, you will form, modify and strengthen your own opinions on the topic as you participate in a mental dialogue with the writer.
Some other ways of improving your reading skills include what is sometimes called rereading- making notes (mental or written ones) on your own view of a given topic before reading the essays on that issue. This exercise will give you a firm basis for response and help you see more clearly how writers present and back up their positions.
You may also try the technique of rereading an essay from a point of view opposite to yours. This technique should sharpen you sense of how firmly argued views make an effort to answer opponents.

Reading argumentative essay with the Help of Discussion Question

The discussion question are designed to help you become a more active reader by prompting you to pay attention to the ways in which the essayist appeals to logic, character, and emotion in the course of arguing a case. All the question fall into some general modes of inquiry that you can use as a reader of any arguments, and the questions for a given case attempt to lead you to more particular answers. In general the questions on logic will ask you to focus on the following:
· What are the data that prompt the claim?
· What are the warrants for making the claim, and what backing is offered for the warrants?
· What provision is made for rebuttals or qualifiers?
· Has a writer used appropriate analogies and provided needed definitions
Questions on character include the following:
· How does the writer attempt to establish his or her general competence for the dealing with the issues?
· How do particular uses of language establish an impression of good character?
· What values, assumptions, and belief underlie the writer’s positions?
Some general questions on emotion are as follows:
· To what emotions in the audience does the writer appeal?
· What particular uses of language invite or evoke emotional responses, and how they do so?
Finally, it will lead you to compare the approaches of different writers to the same topic. These will include the following questions:
· Where, how, and why do the writers agree and disagree?
· What are the values, assumptions, and beliefs that distinguish the position taken?
· Does each writer imagine the same general audience?

Source:

William, V. (2006) Reading and writing short arguments. New York: Mc Graw- Hill.
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Chapter 6: Recognizing views “for” and “against”

“For” and “Against”

When we read the arguments in the articles, the issue usually has two sides. That is, the controversy has two opposing answer, often yes or no.
Example:
Should we go to Vietnam for our vacation? (Yes or no)
Should I take biochemistry next semester? (Yes or no)
Is fast food less nutritious than food cooked at homes? (Yes or no)

Of course, an argument can have several sides, and sometimes several people in a group will argue for several different opinions.
What is the most challenging team sport? (X or y or z)
Which solution to ozone depletion is best? (X or y or z)

Here are two examples of typical arguments for and against.
Should the TOEFL be required for every student entering college or the university whose first language is not English? (Yes or no)

FOR
Yes, because:

Students must be language proficient.

There has to be a standard.

It helps students study.

AGAINST
No, because:

It doesn’t measure real proficiency.

It’s an inauthentic examination.

It harms students.

Should police have the legal authority to stop and search a person and his/her automobile without “probable cause"?

FOR
Yes, because:

It protects all citizens.

If you’re obeying the law, you don’t have any worry.

Gives police the power they need.

AGAINST
No, because:

It violates civil rights.

It instills fear of the police in non- Criminal population.

It gives polices too much power.

Source:

Joy, M. R. (1999) The Process of Composition, University Wyoming: Longman.
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Chapter 7: Topic Sentences

§ A topic sentence tells verifies or supports as thesis statement.
§ It is a general sentence that sums up the main idea.
§ Although the topic sentence is likely to be appearing at the beginning of a paragraph, it can also appear in the middle or at the end.
§ A paragraph can also contain two topic sentences, each one restating the main idea in different words.
§ It also more general than most of the other sentences in the paragraph.
§ A good topic sentence has the following features:
· It controls or guides the whole paragraph. When you read the topic sentence, you know what to expect in the paragraph.
· A good topic sentence is not a general fact that everyone accept as a true.
Example: Libraries have books. This is a not good topic sentence.
· The good topic sentence also must be specific.
Example: Tea is delicious .This is not a good topic because it is too general where the reader does not know what to expect in the paragraph. Green tea has many health benefits is a good topic sentence because it is specific.
· A good topic sentence often has controlling ideas where word or phrases that help guide the flow of ideas in the paragraph.

§ For example :

· Thesis: Elk hunting should be permitted because it financially aids people in our state.
· Topic sentences:
1) Fees for hunting licenses help pay for certain free, stated-supported social services.
2) Hunting helps keep the elk population under control.
3) Elk hunting offers a means of obtaining free food for those people with low incomes.
Source:

Folse K.S, Muchmore–Vokoun A., Vestri S.E. (2001) Great Paragraphs: An Introduction to Writing Paragraphs. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
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Chapter 8: Identifying main ideas

· A main idea is a message the writer wants to communication about the topic or refers the subject under discussion. Writers don’t always state their main idea directly. Sometime, writers imply or suggest their main ideas.
· It is also refer to the large point or expressed about the topic.
· To find the main idea, we need to look which is the most important idea in the reading. In other words, ideas express the author’s main idea.
· A good main idea allows you to back up back your writing with sources other than your personal experience.
· Main idea and topic sentences are not the same.
· The difference between main ideas and topic sentences will become clear to you if you imagine the following: you happen to overhear a conversation in which your name is repeatedly mentioned. When you ask your friends what they were discussing, they say that they were talking about you. At that moment, you certainly have the topic, but you don’t know the main idea. In other word, you don’t know what your friends were saying about you.

For example: one of the fastest-growing minorities in America today is Hispanics-people who trace their heritage to Spanish-speaking nations. Hispanics total more than 22.4 million people, or about 9 percent of the population. In general, Hispanics Americans are made up of three separate groups. Those three groups are Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and those from south or Central American. Hispanic leaders of this large community are determined to end discrimination in housing and employment.

Topics:
1. Spanish-speaking nations
2. Hispanics
3. Minorities

Main ideas:
1. Hispanics living in the United States have often faced serious discrimination.
2. The Hispanic population is rapidly increasing.
3. Hispanic Americans have waged a long, hard fight against discrimination.

Sources:

Fournier, P. (2003) Strategies for correct writing. Canada: Pearson Education, Inc.

Flemming E.L. (2003) Reading keys. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Lee, L. & Gundersen, E. (2001) Select Readings. United States: Oxford University Press, New York.

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Chapter 9: Supporting Details

§ The supporting details are specific sentences that explain or prove the topic sentences by providing reason, example, and definition and so on.
§ Its help clarity, proves, or suggests the topic.
§ Supporting details must be about the idea presented in the topic sentences.
§ Some of the way to support topic sentences is by giving the example and illustration, starting quotation, presented statistic, evaluated causes and effect and making comparison and control.
§ Good supporting sentences give information that supports and explains the topic of the paragraph. They answer question- Who? What? Where? When? Why? And How?
§ Supporting details also helps to show that what are we saying are true.
§ It must be strong and relevant support makes use of accepted facts and references.
§ Most essays must have three supporting details points
§ Each of supporting details should begin with the topic sentences that state the point to be detailed in that paragraph.
§ Topic sentences provide a focus for supporting details.
§ Each support point must be development with specific detail .specific detail are valuable in two key way
§ First, details excited reader’s interest. It makes writing a pleasure to read for we all enjoy learning.
§ Second, details serve to explain a writer’s points.

For example:
Rules of Childhood.
My parents were very strict with me when I was a child. I think that they were protective because I was only child. However, at the time it felt like I was in prison. I had to come straight home after school and immediately do my homework. (1) After I finished my homework, I was allowed to watch only one hour of television. While my friends were playing video games or watching cartoons, I was usually doing chores around the house to help my mother. (2) This included doing some of the laundry and ironing, moving the lawn, and helping to prepare dinner. (3) My father was an architect and my mother was a housewife. Looking back, I am not sorry for all the hard work, but I will probably be less strict with my children.
· Good supporting detail - It is an example of why I felt I was in prison.
· Good supporting detail - It is a list of the chores I had to do around the house.
· Unrelated sentence - My parent’s occupations are not related to how I was
Treated

Sources:

Folse, K.S., Muchmore–Vokoun A., Vestri, S.E. (2001) Great Paragraphs: An Introduction to Writing Paragraphs. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Langan J. (2008) College Writing Skills with Readings. New York: McGraw- Hill.

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Chapter 10: Critical Reading

Critical reading:

· Critical reading involves original, innovative thinking. It creates a person who intentionally and habitually reads with the mental habit of reflection, intellectual honesty, and perceptivity to the text, detail in thought, and originality in insight. Each method of reading has its place, but critical reading is too often supplanted by reading for information.
· Critical readings means actually thinking about the subject, moving beyond what the original essay concluded to the point of how the author reached that conclusion and the degree to which that stating a conclusion in accurate.
· Here are some methods to practice critical reading:

Ask Questions

Talk back to the text: Take the time to jot down the responses, even if only a few words. For example “Huh?”, “Yes!” and “I disagree here because...”
Ask question to the text: Asking and answering forces you to read actively rather than passively. It forces you to think, and that’s the point of critical reading.
Seek relevant connections: Seek out the relevant connections, and you will find them. If the topic does not seem important to you immediately, why does the author think it is important?

Sources:

Anonymous. (No date). Reading. [Online].Available: http://www.critical_reading.com

Flemming.L. (2003) Reading keys. USA: Houghton Miffin.
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Chapter 11: Recognising Definition

Definition means description. To recognise definition of essay, a reader must have a wide range of capacities and abilities. These include cognitive capacities (e.g., attention, memory, critical analytic ability, inference, visualization ability), motivation (a purpose for reading, an interest in the content being read, self-efficacy as a reader), and various types of knowledge (vocabulary, domain and topic knowledge, linguistic and discourse knowledge, knowledge of specific comprehension strategies). Of course, the specific cognitive, motivational, and linguistic capacities and the knowledge base called on in any act of reading comprehension depend on the texts in use and the specific activity in which one is engaged. During defining, a reader will increase domain knowledge in vocabulary, linguistic, or discourse.

Normally, the definition can be found at the first or last paragraph of an essay. Writers usually will define their essays through highly focused on certain words or phrases. However, sometimes reader should analysts and go beyond the essay to find the definition of an essay. Reader should do their best to understand the reasons of the essay. Writers can give a direct definition of the term, limiting their essay just to the mere clarification of the term. But they also can define the term with the help of the story and the reader will infer its meaning.

Besides, fluency can be conceptualized as both an ancestor to and a consequence of definition. Some aspects of fluent, expressive reading may depend on a thorough understanding of a text. So, writers must place the definition in the first or last paragraph to ensure readers easily find the definition of the essay. For example, writers can write (...mean..., is..., for the detail) to inform or signal about the definition to avoid blurriness for the readers.

Sources:

Anonymous. (No date). Answers. [online]. Available: http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?s=definition&gwp=13

Anonymous. (No date). Best essays. [Online]. Available: http://www.bestessays.com/definition_essay.html
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Chapter 12: Distinguishing Facts and Opinions

Facts and opinions

Ø Factual statements are heavily focused on numbers, statistics, dates, measurements, and studies.
Ø Opinion statements can certainly include numbers and dates, but they placed more emphasis on the expression of value judgments.

For example:

Factual
In 1980, psychologist Albert Bandura did a study in which children imitated the aggressive behavior of adults.

Opinion
Perhaps the most important study on the origins of violence in children was done by psychologist Albert Bandura in 1980.

Facts
Opinions
1. can be verified for accuracy
1. cannot be verified for accuracy
2. are not shaped or affected by a
writers personality, background,
or training
2. are affected by a writers
personality, background, and
training
3. rely on denotative or unemotional
Language
3. rely on connotative language
4. frequently use numbers, statistics,
dates, and measurements
4. Frequently express comparisons using words such as more, better, most, and least.
5. name and describe but do not
Evaluate
5. Are often introduced by verbs and adverbs that suggest doubt or possibility, such as appears, and seems, apparently, probably, potentially, and possibly.

6. often make value judgments suggesting that some action or event has a positive or negative effect

7. Can only be labeled valid or invalid, sound or unsound, informed or uninformed, depending on the amount and type of support offered.

Sources:

Flemming, L. (2005) Ninth Edition. Reading for Result. USA: Houghton Miffin.

Flemming. L. (2003) Reading keys. USA: Houghton Miffin.
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Chapter 13: Identifying Bias and Intention

Bias is everywhere

Bias is a subjective way of thinking that tells only one side of a story, sometimes leading to inaccurate information or a false impression. When you research, it is crucial that you identify the level of bias in potential sources.
Below are some possible sources of bias:
a) The writer is relying on incomplete information.
b) The writer is trying to deceive the reader.
c) The writer wants to believe what he or she is saying.
d) The writer’s past experience is influencing his or her thinking.
e) The writer is trying to persuade the reader.

Bias rating

When reading information, think about what possible bias might be distorting the facts. You might use a scale such as the following:
a) Almost totally unbiased; highly objective; accurate.
b) Mostly unbiased; fairly reliable.
c) Somewhat biased; accuracy is questionable.
d) Fairly biased; distorted; probably unreliable.
e) Totally biased; highly subjective; inaccurate.

Intention

You can understand the writer’s intention by asking yourself what is the writer’s reasons for writing. Writers normally write for one of these four reasons; to inform, to instruct, to persuade or to entertain.

Analyzing the writer’s intention

a) What is the tone of the writer?
b) What are the writer’s points of view/ belief on the issues?
c) Who is the writer? ( background, occupation )
d) Who is the intended audience?
e) What is his statement of purpose/ thesis statement?
f) What are being highlighted in the introductory and concluding paragraphs?

Sources:

Anonymous. (No date). Bias. [online]. Available: http://www.biasonreading.com/