COMPONENT 3 GRAMMAR Chapter 1 - 11

Chapter 1: Parts of Speech

NOUNS

All these things are known as common nouns. Why common? Because they are found everywhere in the world, sometimes just one, but often more than one, or even in large numbers.

Do you still remember this rhyme?

Twinkle, twinkle little star,
How I wonder what you are!
Up above the world so high,
Like a diamond in the sky.

You know that millions of stars shine at night, looking like diamonds. But there are only one worlds and one sky.
The word we use for the one world, the one sky, a star, a diamond, is singular.

As I was going to St. Ives
I met a man with seven wives
Each wife had seven sacks
Each sack had seven cats
Each cat had seven kittens…

When there is more than one of one thing like those in the verse above- wives, sacks, cats and kittens, these words are in the plural.
Rule: Almost all common nouns are either in the singular (-s, -ies, -es) or plural (+s, +es, +ies)

Types of Nouns

· Proper Nouns
Example:
West Malaysia consists of eleven states, with Kuala Lumpur as its federal capital. Our country has many rivers, the longest being the Pahang River.
· Collective Nouns
Let us say, you see people and animals moving in large numbers, birds flying in the big groups, fish and insects doing the same. How do we talk about these groups? Such groups or numbers are COLLECTIVE NOUNS. A few of the well-known are: a swarm of bees, a crowd of people, a band of musicians, a bunch of grapes, keys, banana, a flock of sheep.
Rule: The common noun after the word ‘of is always in the plural (+s, +es, +ies)
NOTES: We always place the word of between the collective and the common nouns.

· Abstract Nouns
All of us can feel pain, we also know what hunger, beauty, happiness, sadness, jealousy, and laziness is. But we cannot see pain, touch hunger, hold beauty, smell happiness, send jealousy, catch laziness, and throw sadness. So all of them are known as ABSTRACT NOUNS, which we can think about, talk about and, perhaps, even write or argue about. For example we may not agree with our friends who have different ideas about what happiness is. So we argue about it. But can we touch, feel, see, happiness.

· Count Nouns and Non-count Nouns
Why are common, proper, collective, and abstract nouns important? We use them as [i] subjects in our sentences and questions which may have ideas, thought, description, orders, requests and much more. [ii] objects and [iii] complement to complete our sentences.

PRONOUNS

· Personal Pronouns
We use ‘I, you, he, and she’ when we talk or write to others about yourself.
Object Pronouns
Besides personal pronouns, there are those known as OBJECT PRONOUNS. Do you remember the sentences with two objects? One of the objects was a NOUN and the other a PRONOUN.
Example:
- Today, Jack has no money to buy food and drink.
- Twice a year, Fadilah buys expensive clothes for me.
- We gave them the correct answer.
· Possessive Pronouns (Possessive Adjective)
When we buy clothes, shoes, furniture, cars, etc. these items belong to us, they are ours. In the same way, we give away for example money, a box of chocolate, a slice of bread, a piece of cake, a pair of earrings to someone, each of these items belongs to that person. It is his or hers.
NOTE: Every time there is a NOUN immediately AFTER each pronoun, the pronoun becomes a possessive adjective and that all of these possessive could be used to BEGIN sentences.
Example:
- Aziz is a very helpful boy. His classmates (subject) like him very much.

· Other Possessive Pronouns Used As Complements
This is yet another way of showing that something or someone belongs to us or to others. These possessive pronouns are MINE, THEIRS, OURS, HIS, HERS and ITS.
Example:
- These three pairs of shoes are mine. Those four pairs are yours.
- My favourites colour (subject) is pink. What is yours (complement)? Mine (subject) is green.

· Some possessive pronoun are used with word ‘of’
Example:
- My friend from Indonesia comes to stay with me twice a year.

· Demonstrative Pronoun
How often have you pointed to someone or something which is either close to you or far away from you? We use the SINGULAR DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN ‘this’ for a person, animal or thing close to us.

Example:
- This is my father, Mr. Hassan. (When he stands or sits close to you).
- That is the National Museum.
- These are picture of all the birds in Malaysia.
- Those are blue roses.

· Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are pronouns which refer back to the subject of the sentences. Without them the sentences DO NOT make sense in the way it is intended.
Example:
- The old woodcutter cut himself badly this morning.
Explanation: The reflexive pronoun, ‘himself refers back to the ‘old woodcutter’, the subject of the sentence. If, however, we choose not to use ‘himself, the sentence the old woodcutter cut badly this morning does not have the intended meaning.

· Emphatic Pronouns
Emphatic pronouns, although similar in form to Reflexive Pronoun, perform a different function. The function is to emphasis or stresses the subject carrying out the action activity. Unlike the reflexive pronoun, we can leave out the emphatic pronoun without affecting the meaning of the sentence.
Example:
- The taxi drivers themselves decided to go on strike.

· Relative Pronouns
Here, we are going to study how certain pronouns perform TWO important functions. So far, you have learnt how to use Who, Which, Whose and whom (with a proposition) to form a question:
1. WHO was the former Prime Minister of Singapore?
2. WHICH is the largest and deepest ocean in the world?
3. WHOSE car tires were punctured three day ago?
4. With WHOM was Bob angry?

The words WHO, WHICH, WHOSE, and WHOM change their POSITION AND FUNCTION when we use them in SENTENCES. When we use these five words in sentences (including THAT), they are known as RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

VERBS

When we return home from school in the afternoon, we have lunch, rest for a while, perhaps bathe again, and then we study. In the evening we have tea, go out to play with friends and return home before dark. Or, some of us watch television, sit down to study again. We have dinner, finish our homework and then we go to bed.

All the words in bold are [i] ACTION VERBS and [ii] ACTIVITY VERBS. What we do for few minutes, a very, very short time, we shall call it an action, and you are the doer.

That which takes a longer time to finish is an activity verb. So the verb ‘wash’ can be both an action and an activity verb. When you wash your face, it is an action, but when you wash clothes, the car or the house, it becomes an activity verb.
Now, there are quite number of actions we carry out every day. The most common examples are: we eat, we drink, we sleep, we bath. All these verbs are in the SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE (base form).

· Action or Activity Verbs in the Simple Present Tense
Swee Lian works for Dr. Chan and his family. Every morning she boards the 6.25 a.m. bus, arriving at her workplace, five minutes before seven.
It is 7 a.m.; Swee Lian prepares breakfast for the whole family. Dr. Chan likes two slices of toast, spread with butter and jam, and a cup of hot coffee. Mrs. Chan eats one boiled egg with a cup of hot coffee. Ai Chee and Ai Nee have three slices of toast each, scrambled eggs and coffee.
What have you read just now is a day at Swee Lian’s workplace.

· Non-Action Verbs
These verbs are ‘am’, ‘is’, ‘are’, ‘was’ and ‘were’. They are very different from ACTION or ACTIVITY verbs these DO NOT show any action. That is why they are known as NON-Action verbs.
Time is again shown through the CHANGE in the FORM of these VERBS according to the TENSE.

Here are examples of sentences with ACTION VREBS in the PLURAL FORM:
1. Parents [Plural Subject (+s)] love [Plural Subject (+s)] their children very much.
Now the sentences using the NON-ACTION VERB IS which a SINGULAR VERB is.
2. Zubaidah (Singular Subject) is (Singular Verb) in the garden, watering her plants.
Now the sentences using the NON-ACTION VERB ARE which a PLURAL VERB is.
3. History and Geography (Plural Subject) are (Plural Verb) interesting subjects.

ADJECTIVES

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:

1. The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
2. Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.
3. The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
4. The coal mines are dark and dank.

An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb. In the sentence:
My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.

For example, the adverb "intricately" modifies the adjective "patterned."
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the sentence:
Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.

For example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.

Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective ("my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their") is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "my" modifies "assignment" and the noun phrase "my assignment" functions as an object. Note that the possessive pronoun form "mine" is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.
What is your phone number?

Here the possessive adjective "your" is used to modify the noun phrase "phone number"; the entire noun phrase "your phone number" is a subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun form "yours" is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.
The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.

In this example, the possessive adjective "his" modifies the noun phrase "favourite type of bread" and the entire noun phrase "his favourite type of bread" is the direct object of the verb "sold."
After many years, she returned to her homeland.

Here the possessive adjective "her" modifies the noun "homeland" and the noun phrase "her homeland" is the object of the preposition "to." Note also that the form "hers" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
We have lost our way in this wood.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective "our" modifies "way" and the noun phrase "our way" is the direct object of the compound verb "have lost". Note that the possessive pronoun form "ours" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

Demonstrative Adjectives

The demonstrative adjectives "this," "these," "that," "those," and "what" are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:
When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.

In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective "that" modifies the noun "cord" and the noun phrase "that cord" is the object of the preposition "over."
This apartment needs to be fumigated.

Here "this" modifies "apartment" and the noun phrase "this apartment" is the subject of the sentence.
Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.

In the subordinate clause, "those" modifies "plates" and the noun phrase "those plates" is the object of the verb "preferred." In the independent clause, "these" is the direct object of the verb "bought."

Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between an interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.

Interrogative Adjectives

An interrogative adjective ("which" or "what") is like an interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
Like other adjectives, "which” can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase? In this example, "which” modifies “plants” and the noun phrase “which plants” is the subject of the compound verb “should be watered”?
What book are you reading?

In this sentence, "what" modifies "book" and the noun phrase "what book" is the direct object of the compound verb "are reading."

Indefinite Adjectives

An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.

The indefinite adjective "many" modifies the noun "people" and the noun phrase "many people" is the subject of the sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.

The indefinite adjective "any" modifies the noun "mail" and the noun phrase "any mail" is the direct object of the compound verb "will send."
They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.

In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun "goldfish" and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb "found":
The title of Kelly's favourite game is "All dogs go to heaven."

Here the indefinite pronoun "all" modifies "dogs" and the full title is a subject complement.

ADVERBS

Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Definition
Adverbs are words that modify
A verb (He drove slowly. — How did he drive?)
An adjective (He drove a very fast car. — How fast was his car?)
Another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. — How slowly did she move?)

As we will see, adverbs often tell when, where, why, or under what conditions something happens or happened. Adverbs frequently end in -ly; however, many words and phrases not ending in -ly serve an adverbial function and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. The words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives:

That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.
If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb (modifying the verb of a sentence), it is called an Adverb Clause:
When this class is over, we're going to the movies.
When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is called an adverbial phrase. Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions (telling place and time, modifying the verb):
· He went to the movies.
· She works on holidays.
· They lived in Canada during the war.

And Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):
· She hurried to the mainland to see her brother.
· The senator ran to catch the bus.

But there are other kinds of adverbial phrases:
· He calls his mother as often as possible.

Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective cannot modify an adverb. Thus we would say that "the students showed a really wonderful attitude" and that "the students showed a wonderfully casual attitude" and that "my professor is really tall, but not "He ran real fast."

Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree.

· Walk faster if you want to keep up with me.
· The student who reads fastest will finish first.
We often use more and most, less and least to show degree with adverbs:
· With sneakers on, she could move more quickly among the patients.
· The flowers were the most beautifully arranged creations I've ever seen.
· She worked less confidently after her accident.
· That was the least skillfully done performance I've seen in years.

The as — as construction can be used to create adverbs that express sameness or equality: "He can't run as fast as his sister."

A handful of adverbs have two forms, one that ends in -ly and one that doesn't. In certain cases, the two forms have different meanings:

· He arrived late.
· Lately, he couldn't seem to be on time for anything.

In most cases, however, the form without the -ly ending should be reserved for casual situations:

· She certainly drives slowly in that old Buick of hers.
· He did wrong by her.
· He spoke sharp, quick, and to the point.

Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser emphasis to something. Intensifiers are said to have three different functions: they can emphasize, amplify, or down tone. Here are some examples:

Emphasizes:
I really don't believe him.
He literally wrecked his mother's car.
She simply ignored me.
They're going to be late, for sure.

Amplifiers:
The teacher completely rejected her proposal.
I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings.
They heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
I so wanted to go with them.
We know this city well.

Down toners:
I kind of like this college.
Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister.
His mother mildly disapproved his actions.
We can improve on this to some extent.
The boss almost quit after that.
The school was all but ruined by the storm.

Adverbs (as well as adjectives) in their various degrees can be accompanied by premodifiers:
She runs very fast.
We're going to run out of material all the faster

This issue is addressed in the section on degrees in adjectives.

ARTICLES

The three articles — a, an, the — are a kind of adjective. The is called the definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an are called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an unspecified count noun). These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners because they are almost invariably followed by a noun (or something else acting as a noun).


The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:
The moon circles the earth.

The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract:
The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit.

The is required when the noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the text.

We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door).

Words that begin with an h sound often require a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We would say an once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won). Merriam-Webster's Dictionary says that we can use an before an h- word that begins with an unstressed syllable. Thus, we might say an historical moment, but we would say a History book. Many writers would call that an affectation and prefer that we say a historical, but apparently, this choice is a matter of personal taste.

First and subsequent reference: When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify it.
A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.

In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article:

There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public's safety is jeopardized by knowing the truth.

Another example: "I'd like a glass of orange juice, please," John said. "I put the glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Exception: When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite: "I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said. "I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by using any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.

A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
An Airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.
The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.

The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.

Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:

Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Smokiest, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park)
Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots
Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Athenaeum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church
Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times
Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang, the president of our club

Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:

The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of mind.
Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the judge to correct the injustice.
Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.

DETERMINERS
‘Determiner’ is a general term for words which are used before nouns to show which
Person or thing is being referred to. Determiners of quantity are used to describe
How much or little of something there is.

Example:
A complete, a large, a small, zero, All, many, enough, a few, no, every, much, few, neither,
Each, most, several, both, a little.

The following determiners must only be used with countable nouns in the plural:

We don’t get many tourists here. We get several letters a week.
Hold on with both hands. I take fewer trips abroad these days.
We’ve invited a few friends to dinner. So few people attended.

Note: Few have a negative meaning, and mean ‘almost no’. A few has a positive
Meaning and means ‘some’.

The following determiners must only be used with uncountable nouns:

Will it take much time? I had less money than I thought.

Note: Little has a negative meaning, and means ‘almost no’. A little has a positive
Meaning and means ‘some’.

The following determiners can be used with countable nouns in the plural and with
Uncountable nouns:

Kim’s got more bags than me. Kim’s got more luggage than me.
Most items of jewellery are made Most gold is used to make jewelery.
From gold.
All children should receive education. All meat is rich in protein.
Do you have enough clothes? We don’t have enough furniture.
He left no instructions. There’s no ice in the fridge.

The following determiners must be used with singular countable nouns:

He checked each document carefully. Every child needs affection.

If you follow one determiner with another determiner (such as the or this) you
Usually put of between them.

Take some bread. Take some of the bread.

8. Conjunctions

Definition

Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right out of the box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't happy unless they're out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and they just can't help themselves. A conjunction is a joiner; a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.
Coordinating Conjunctions
The simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions (you can click on the words to see specific descriptions of each one):

Examples Coordinating Conjunctions;
And, but, or, yet, for, nor, so

(It may help you remember these conjunctions by recalling that they all have fewer than four letters. Also, remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-So. Be careful of the words then and now; neither is a coordinating conjunction, so what we say about coordinating conjunctions' roles in a sentence and punctuation does not apply to those two words.)

When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is often (but not always) accompanied by a comma:
Ulysses wants to play for UConn, but he has had trouble meeting the academic requirements.

When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction are nicely balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma:
Ulysses has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet.

The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction. See Punctuation between Two Independent Clauses for further help.

A comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial list, although many writers (especially in newspapers) will omit that final comma:
Ulysses spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.

When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a comma is not used:
Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant congregations in Oklahoma.

A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:
This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.

In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses, that is), coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of a comma.

Hemingway and Fitzgerald are among the American expatriates of the between-the-wars era.
Hemingway was renowned for his clear style and his insights into American notions of male identity.
It is hard to say whether Hemingway or Fitzgerald is the more interesting cultural icon of his day.
Although Hemingway is sometimes disparaged for his unpleasant portrayal of women and for his glorification of machismo, we nonetheless find some sympathetic, even heroic, female figures in his novels and short stories.

PREPOSITIONS

A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In itself, a word like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For instance, when you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or "on," you invariably use your hands to show how something is situated in relationship to something else. Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases can be made up of a million different words, but they tend to be built the same: a preposition followed by a determiner and an adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the preposition). This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying role, acting as an adjective or an adverb, locating something in time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or where or under what conditions something happened.

Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in
We use at to designate specific times.The train is due at 12:15 p.m.

We use on to designate days and dates.My brother is coming on Monday.We're having a party on the Fourth of July.

We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.She likes to jog in the morning.It's too cold in winter to run outside.He started the job in 1971.He's going to quit in August.

Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in
We use at for specific addresses.Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.

We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.Her house is on Boretz Road.
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).
She lives in Durham.Durham is in Windham County.Windham County is in Connecticut.

Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition

IN:
(the) bed*
the bedroom
the car
(the) class*
the library*
school*

AT:
class*
home
the library*
the office
school*
work

ON: the bed
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train

NO PREPOSITION downstairsdowntown
inside
outside
upstairs

* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.

Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place. They were driving to work together. She's going to the dentist's office this morning.
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better to you.We're moving toward the light.This is a big step towards the project's completion.
With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition. Grandma went upstairs Grandpa went home. They both went outside.

Prepositions of Time: for and since
We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years). He held his breath for seven minutes.
We use since with a specific date or time. He's worked here since 1970.
Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.
Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have practically become one word. (In fact, in other languages, such as German, they would have become one word.) This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

Sources:

Dutt . J, 2001.English Grammar made easy for learners (SPM Muet): Federal
Publications.

MacFadyen . H, What Is An Adjective? Available: http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/adjectve.html

Martin.H, 2003.Grammar and compositions. New Delhi’s Chand and company ltd.

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Chapter 2: Simple Tenses

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

USES
· We use simple present tense to talk about things in general.
· We are not thinking only about the present.
· We use it to say about something happens all the time or repeatedly or something is true in general.
· It is not important whether the action is happening at time of speaking.
· We use the simple present when we say how often we do things.


FORM

· AFFIRMATIVE FORM

AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENTS

Subject Verb
I/We/You/They Work
She/he/It Works

NEGATIVE STATEMENTS
Subject
Do Not
Base Form
I/We/You/They
Do Not
Don’t
Work
She/he/It
Does Not
Doesn’t
Work

Examples:
§ I get up at 8.00 every morning. (Not am getting)
§ In the summer. Tom usually plays tennis twice a week.
§ He comes from Japan .(Not he is coming from Japan )

· NEGATIVE FORM

Plural Subjects,
I, You
I do not watch TV.

Example
We don’t have homework.

Note
Here are contractions with not: do + not = don’t, does + not = doesn’t

Singular Subjects

Examples
Dr. Michaels does not speak clearly.
He doesn’t do his homework.

Note
With do as the main verb, a form of do appears twice.

· INTERROGATIVE FORM

Plural Subjects,
I, You

Examples
Do we have an exam?
Don’t you do the homework?
Do they need help?

Notes
A form of do appears in short answers:
Yes, i do. Yes, we (you, they) do. Yes, he (she, it) does. No, I don’t. No, we (you, they) don’t. No, he (she, it) doesn’t.

Singular Subjects

Examples
Doesn’t Mr. Smith teach math?
Does she study a lot?

Notes
A form of do appears in short answers:
Yes, i do. Yes, we (you, they) do. Yes, he (she, it) does. No, I don’t. No, we (you, they) don’t. No, he (she, it) doesn’t.

TIME EXPRESSION

1. Use the present simple to talk about what happens regularly.
Now
Past ---------x---------x--------------x----------x-----------x---------- future
Rush

Examples:
· Some people rush through life.
· They don’t relax.
· Other people are calm.
· They don’t feel tense.

2. Use adverbs of frequency with the present simple to express how often something happens.
- Always
- Usually
- Often
- Sometimes
- Rarely/Seldom
- Never

v Be careful!!!! Adverbs of frequency usually come before the main verb but they go after the verb be.

Examples:
· She never relaxes.
· You usually take life easier.
· We sometimes sleep late.
· They rarely go on holiday.

3. Use the present simple to talk about scientific facts.

Examples:
· Stress causes high blood pressure.
· Water freezes at 0 degree Celsius.

EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

· I get up at 8.00 every morning. (Not am getting)
· In the summer. Tom usually plays tennis twice a week.
· He comes from Japan .(Not he is coming from Japan )
· How often do you go to the dentist?
· Ann doesn’t go out very often.
· The earth goes around the sun.

SIMPLE PAST TENSE

USES

· We use the simple past to talk about action or situations in the past.

FORM

o AFFIRMATIVE FORM

The Past Simple: Be

SUBJECT
I/She/he/It

BE
Was

Young in 1930

SUBJECT
We/You/They

BE
Were

Young in 1930

The Past Simple: Regular Verbs

SUBJECT
I/She/he/It/We/You/They

VERB
Moved
worked

Fifty years ago

The Past Simple: Irregular Verbs

SUBJECT
I/She/he/It/We/You/They

VERB
Wrote
Became
Built

Poetry
Famous
A monument

o NEGATIVE FORM

BE
I wasn’t interested in TV in those days.
They weren’t any video games in the 1950s.

Wasn’t (for singular subjects) is the contraction for was not; weren’t (for plural subjects and you) is the contraction for were not.

OTHER VERBS
We didn’t have a dishwasher.
The children didn’t do housework.
They didn’t usually wash dishes.

Didn’t (for all subjects) is the contraction of did not. It appears before the simple form of a verb.

o INTERROGATIVE FORM

Yes/No Question: Be

BE
Was
Were

SUBJECT
she
they

here last year?

WH- WORD
Why

WH – QUESTION : BE
Was
Were

SUBJECT
She
They

here last year?

TIME EXPRESSION

1. Use the past simple to talk about things that are now finished.
Now
Past -----------------------x-------------x----------------------------- future
He was a poet.

Examples:
· Albert Rimes lived in the twentieth century.
· He was a poet.
· He wrote poetry.

2. You can use the past simple with time expressions that refer to the past (last week, by 1980, in the twentieth century, fifty years ago).

Examples:
· By 1930, he was famous.
· He died over ten years ago.

3. The past simple of regular verbs is formed by adding –d or –ed.

v Be careful!!!!! There are often spelling changes when you add –ed to the verb.

Many common verbs are irregular.
Their past tense is not formed by adding –d or –ed.

Examples:

· live → lived
· join → joined
· play → played
· study → studied
· hop → hopped
· be → was/were
· have → had
· get → got
· go → went

Examples of Simple Past Tense

· I enjoyed the party very much.
· When I lived in Athens, I worked in a bank.
· Mr. Brown died ten years ago.
· We invited them to our party, but they decided not to come.
· Did you go out last night?
· When did Mrs. Johnson die?

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

USES
· Use it to talk about something that began in the past and continues into the present (and may continue into the future).

FORM

o AFFIRMATIVE FORM

EXAMPLES:
Bob and Bill are going to have a picnic.
They’re going to meet at the park.
Anita is going to bring food.
She’s going to drive.

NOTES
Going to sounds like “gonna” in quick, informal speech. (We’re gonna meet.) Do not write this form.

STATEMENTS
Use contractions with forms of be and not.

o NEGATIVE FORM
Be going to for the future

SUBJECT
I
You
We
You
They

He
She
It

BE
am
are

is

(Not) going to

BASE FORM OF VERB
Start

Soon

o INTERROGATIVE FORM

BE
am
are
is

SUBJECT
I
You
We
You
They

He
She
It

Going to

BASE FORM OF VERB
Start

soon?

TIME EXPRESSION
1. Use the future continuous with will (not) and won’t to talk about things that will be in progress at a specific time in the future.

Now
12.00
Past ------------------------- -------x---------------------- future

Will be taking

Examples:
· Robo will be taking the dog for a walk at noon.
· He won’t be cleaning the house.

2. Usage note: We also use (not) be going to + be + base form + ing but the structure with will is more common.
Remember! Stative verbs are not usually used in the continuous form.

Examples:
· A: Robo is going to be taking the dog for a walk at noon.
· B: He isn’t going to be cleaning the house.
· I’ll know my test result next week.

3. Remember that if the sentences have a time clause, use the present simple or present continuous in the time clause, not the future or future continuous.

Examples:
· I’ll be cooking while the robot is cleaning.

Sources:

Elaine .K, Darcy.J .2007. Interactions 1 A Communicative Grammar. Mc Graw-Hill .Mc Graw-Hill Publishing Companies.

Majorie.F, Miriam.W, Margaret.B.1999. Focus on Grammar .Wesley. Addison .Wesley Publishing Company.

Raymond, M.1989. Grammar in Use Reference and Practice for Intermediate Students of English. Cambridge .Cambridge University Press.

______________________________________

CHAPTER 3: CONTINUOUS TENSE

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

USES 1: We use the present continuous tense when we talk about something is happening at the time of speaking.

Example:
- Please don’t make so much noise. I’m studying. (not I study)
- Let’s go out now. It is not raining any more. (not is not rain)


USES 2: We also use the present continuous when we talk about something that is happening around the time of speaking, but not necessarily exactly at the time of speaking.

Examples:
- Tom and Ann are talking and having coffee in a cafe. Tom says: “I’m reading an interesting book at the moment. I’ll lend it to you when I’ve finished it.”
- Tom is not reading the book at the time of speaking. He means that he has begun the book and hasn’t finished it yet. He is in the middle of reading it.

More examples:
- Maria is studying English at a language school. (not studies)
- Have you heard about Brain? He is building his own house. (not builds)

But perhaps Maria and Brain are not doing these things exactly at the time of speaking.

USES 3: We often use the present continuous when we talk about a period around the present.

For example: Today, this week, this season, etc:

Example:
- “You’re walking hard today.” “Yes, I have a lot to do.”
- Tom isn’t playing football this season. He wants to concentrate on his studies.


USES 4: We use the present continuous when we talk about changing situations.

Example:
- The population of the world is rising very fast. (not rise)
- Is your English getting better? (not does…get)

Forms of the Present Continuous:

AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENT
I am working.
He
She is working.
It
You
We are working.
They

NEGATIVE STATEMENT
I am not working.
He
She is not working
It
You
We are not
They working.

INTERROGATIVE
Am I working?

He
Is She working?
It
You
Are We working?
They

SHORT ANSWER
Yes, I am.
No, I’m not.

He
Yes She is.
It
You
Yes We are.
They

Time Expressions:

THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

In progress

Bob can’t come to the phone right now because he is taking a shower.
It’s noon. Ann is eating lunch at the cafeteria right now.
It’s nice day today. The sun is shining.

The present progressive expresses an activity that is in progress (is occurring, is happening) right now. The event is in progress at the time the speaker is saying the sentence. The event begin in the past, is in progress now and will probably continue into the future.

Past Continuous Tense

USES 1: to say that someone was in the middle of doing something at a certain time.
The action or situation had already started before this time but had not finished

For example:
- This time last year I was living in Brazil.
- What were you doing at 10:00 last night?

USES 2: The past continuous does not tell us whether and action was finished or not. Perhaps it was finished, perhaps not.

For example:
- Dan was cooking dinner. (Past continuous) = he was in the middle of cooking dinner and we do not know whether he finished cooking it.
- Dan cooked dinner. (Simple past) = he began and finished it.

USES 3: We often use the past continuous (I was doing) and the simple past (I did) together to say that something happened in the middle of something else.

For example:
- Dan burned his hand while he was cooking dinner.
- I saw Jim in the park. He was sitting on the grass and reading a book.
- It was raining when I got up.
- While I was working in the garden, I hurt my back.

*But to say that one thing happened after another, use the simple past.
- Last night Sue was taking a bath when the phone rang. She got out of the bathtub and answered the phone.

Compare:

- When Helen arrived, we were having dinner. (past continuous) = we had already started dinner before Helen arrived.
- When Helen arrived, we had dinner. (simple past) = Helen arrived and then we had dinner.

Forms of past continuous:

AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENT
I
He was working when the phone rang.
She
It

You
We were working when the phone rang.
They


NEGATIVE STATEMENT
I
He was not working when the phone rang.
She
It

You
We were not working when the phone rang.
They


INTERROGATIVE STATEMENT
I
He
Was She working when the
It phone rang?


You
Were We working when
They the phone rang?


SHORT ANSWER
I
Yes, He was
She
It

You
Yes, We were.
They


Time expressions:

PAST CONTINUOUS

In progress

- I sat down at the dinner table at 6:00 p.m. I was eating dinner when my friend came.
- I went to bed at 10:00. The phone rang at 11:00. I was sleeping when the phone rang.
The past continuous expresses an activity that was in progress (was occurring, was happening) at a particular time in the past.

Future Continuous Tense

USES 1: We use will be doing (future continuous) to say that we will be in the middle of doing something at a certain time in the future.

To illustrate: The football game begins at 7:30 and ends at 9:15. So during this time, for example at 8:30, Tom will be watching the match.

More examples:

- You will recognize her when you see her. She will be wearing a yellow hat.
- This time next week I will be on vacation. I will probably be lying on a beautiful beach.

Compare will be doing with the other continuous forms:

Bill works every morning from 9 o’clock until noon. So:

- At 10 o’clock yesterday he was working. (Past continuous)
- It is 10 o’clock now. He is working. (Present continuous)
- At 10 o’clock tomorrow he will be working. (Future continuous)

USES 2: To talk about things that are already planned or decided

*I will be going downtown later. Can I get you anything?
With this meaning will be doing is similar to am doing. (I am going downtown later.)

USES 3: We often use Will (you) be –ing? To ask about people’s plans, especially when we want something or want someone to do something:

“Will you be using your bicycle this evening?” “No, you can take it.”
“Will you be passing the post office when you go out?” “Yes, why?”

Forms of future continuous:

AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENT
I
You
He
She will work tomorrow.
It
We
They

NEGATIVE STATEMENT
I
You
He
She will not work tomorrow.
It
We
They

INTERROGATIVE STATEMENT
I
You
He
Will She work tomorrow?
It
We
They

SHORT ANSWER
I
You
He
Yes, She will.
It
We
They

Time expressions:

FUTURE CONTINUOUS

- I am going to leave at nine tomorrow morning.
- I will leave at nine tomorrow morning.
- Marie is going to be at the meeting tonight.
- Marie will be at the meeting tonight.
a ) and b ) have the same meaning.
c ) and d ) have the same meaning.

Be going to and will are used to express future time.*
NOTE: Going to is sometimes pronounced “gonna” in everyday, informal speech. Will is usually contracted to “’ll” in everyday, informal speech.

Sources:

Schrampfer, B. (1985). Fundamentals of English Grammar. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey.

Murphy, R. (1989). Grammar in use: Reference and Practice for Intermediate Students of English. New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
_______________________________________

CHAPTER 4: PERFECT TENSES

PAST PERFECT TENSES

Past perfect tenses a combination of past and perfect, expressing a kind of past that is typically further back I time than what is expressed by the simple past tenses, and expressing also the kind of complete tenses associated with the perfects aspects. In English, the past perfect is a compound tense formed by using the past tense of the auxiliary have followed by the past participle of the verb concerned.

Uses:

1. We use the past perfect when we already talking about the past and want to talk about an earlier past time.
2. Past perfect tense is use after ‘when’ to show that something is completely finished.

Forms:

1. Our train was late, and we ran to the cinema. But the film had already begun.

· ‘Was’ is an example of past tense.
· Begun is earlier past.

2. We’d been driving for about an hour when the engine suddenly stopped.
I had stayed in the hotel twice in the 1980’s.
· The blue is the example of the past perfect tense sentences.


3. Had + past participle of the verb.

Examples:

· After Arman had revised the essay twice, he handed it in.
· The play had already begun by the time they arrived.
· The ship couldn’t leave because the dock workers hadn’t yet loaded the cargo.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSES

Uses:

1. Present perfect used to talk about something that began in the past and continues into the present (and may continue into the future).
2. It also used to show when something started.
3. Present perfect is used to show how long a present situation has lasted.
4. To talk about things that have and have not happened before now.
5. Used present perfect for a past action if the result is still important now.

Forms:

1. Use have/has + past participle.
· Past participle: base form of the verb + -d or –ed.
2. Use have/has + just/already/yet + past participle.
3. Use have/has + since + point in time.
4. Use have/has + for + length of time.

Affirmatives:
· I have = I’ve
· You have= you’ve
· We have = we’ve
· They have = they’ve
· He has = he’s
· She has = she’s
· It has = It’s

Negatives:
· Have not = haven’t
· Has not = hasn’t

Time expression:

1. Martina Hingis has been a professional tennis player for several years.
Martina Hingis has been a professional tennis player since 1994.
· She began her professional career several years ago, and she is still a professional player.
2. Karim has bought a computer.
· And he still has it now
3. A have lost my pencil.
· And I haven’t found it yet.

Example:

1. The girls have finished their homework.
2. The Taiping bus has left already.
3. She has earned millions of dollars since 1994.
4. She has become extremely successful since she has been in Switzerland.
5. I’ve just recovered from a bad cold.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

Future perfect tense is used to describe an action that will have been completed by a certain time in the future, often in relation to another action. It is formed with the auxiliary will have plus the past participle of the verb.

Uses:

1. The future perfect is used to describe events or actions that will be completed before a specific time or before another event in the future.
2. We can use the future perfect to talk about some things being over at a time the future.
3. Sometimes, we can use “be going to” as well as “will”

Forms:

1. The future perfect is formed will + have + past participle.
2. The future perfect can be expressed an assumption about the past. This tense focus on the result of the action.

Time Expression:

1. When we use the future perfect, we imagine a certain point of time in the future and we look back at events that will be completed by that time.
2. Use by + time expression to identify the point in time in the future.
3. Use already to emphasize that an event will have happened by a point in time.

Examples:

· By June, he will have paid his debt
· We won’t have saved enough by then.
· By May, she’ll have bought a car.
· She’ll have looked at a lot of cars by then.
· By the end of the semester, he’ll have already saved RM1000.
· I will have written all my exams by next week.
· I will have finished all my others work before then.
· By the time I finish my computer course, I will have learned how to use four different programming languages.
· By the end of the year, NASA will have launched three more space vehicles.
· I’ll have finished this book soon. I’m nearly at the end.
· We don’t need all day for the museum, I expect we’ll have enough by lunch time.
· Sarah won’t have completed her studies until she is twenty-five.

Sources:

Aronson, T. (1984). English Grammar Digest. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Bonner, M. (1994). Focus On Grammar . Longman: Wesley Publishing Company Inc.

Eastwood, J. (2005). Learner’s Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hewings, M. (2005). Advance Grammar In Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Hughes, R. (2008). English Grammar Made Simple. Polygraphic CML Publishers.

Press.Steer, J. M,Carlisi, K.A. (1997). The Advance Grammar Book. Boston: Heinle Publishers.

Steer, J. M,Carlisi, K.A. (1997). The Advance Grammar Book. Boston: Heinle Publishers.

Swan, M. Walter, C. (2001).The Good Grammar Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
____________________________________________

CHAPTER 5: CONDITIONALS

Most conditional sentence have a sub-clause starting with the word if. We can use many different verb forms in conditional sentences. Here are some real examples.

- If you haven’t got television, you can’t watch it.
- If you go to one of the agencies, they have a lot of temporary jobs.
- If someone else has requested the book, you would have to give it back.
- In general we use verb form in conditional sentences in the same way as in other kinds of sentences.
- If you’re finished work for today, you can go home.

Compare: you’ve finished your work for today, so you can go home.

In an open condition (when something may or may not happen), we use the present tense: if you go to one of the agencies. When we talk about something unreal, we often use the past tense: if you lived on planet Mercury. After an unreal condition, we used would in the main clause: you would have four birthdays.

Sources:

Anonymous. (2009). English Grammar. [online]. Available: http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-conditional.htm
____________________________________________

CHAPTER 6: GERUNDS

When a verb ends in - ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to understand that they are not the same.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund:
- Fishing is fun.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a present participle:
- Anthony is fishing.
- I have a boring teacher.

In this lesson, we look at the different ways in which we use gerunds:

- Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement
- Gerunds after Prepositions
- Gerunds after Certain Verbs
- Gerunds in Passive Sense
- Gerunds Quiz
- Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement

Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.
Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence:

- Smoking costs a lot of money.
- I don't like writing.
- My favourite occupation is reading.

But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the whole expression [gerund + object] can be the subject, object or complement of the sentence.

- Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money.
- I don't like writing letters.
- My favourite occupation is reading detective stories.

Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and other determiners):
- pointless questioning
- a settling of debts
- the making of Titanic
- his drinking of alcohol

But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a direct object:
a settling of debts (not a settling debts)

- Making "Titanic" was expensive.
- The making of "Titanic" was expensive.

Do you see the difference in these two sentences? In one, "reading" is a gerund (noun). In the other "reading" is a present participle (verb).
- My favourite occupation is reading.
- My favourite niece is reading.

Gerunds after Prepositions

If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is impossible to use an infinitive after a preposition. So for example, we say:
- I will call you after arriving at the office.
- Please have a drink before leaving.
- I am looking forward to meeting you.
- Do you object to working late?
- Tara always dreams about going on holiday.
-
Notice that you could replace all the above gerunds with "real" nouns:
- I will call you after my arrival at the office.
- Please have a drink before your departure.
- I am looking forward to our lunch.
- Do you object to this job?
- Tara always dreams about holidays.

The rule has no exceptions! So why is "to" followed by "driving" in 1 and by "drive" in 2?
- I am used to driving on the left.
- I used to drive on the left.

Gerunds after Certain Verbs

We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the infinitive form, for example:
- I want to eat.
-
But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example:
- I dislike eating.

This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by a verb in gerund form:
admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practice, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand, suggest, understand

Look at these examples:
- She is considering having a holiday.
- Do you feel like going out?
- I can't help falling in love with you.
- I can't stand not seeing you.

Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive form without a big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start
- I like to play tennis.
- I like playing tennis.
- It started to rain.
- It started raining.

Gerunds in Passive Sense

We often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this case, the gerund has a passive sense.
- I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed)
- This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed)
- The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted)

Sources:

Fuchs, M. (2006). Focus On Grammar, Pearson Education, Inc : New York
____________________________________________

CHAPTER 7: INFINITIVE

An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbal, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form, deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.

- To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)
- Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)
- His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)
- He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective)
- We must study to learn. (adverb)
-
Be sure not to confuse an infinitive—a verbal consisting of to plus a verb—with a prepositional phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers.

Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong

Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to the mountains, to us, to this address

An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro) noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive, such as:
- We intended to leave early.
-
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb intended to leave (infinitive) early (adverb)
- I have a paper to write before class.

The infinitive phrase functions as an adjective modifying paper to write (infinitive) before class (prepositional phrase as adverb)
- Phil agreed to give me a ride.

The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb agreed to give (infinitive) me (indirect object of action expressed in infinitive) a ride (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)

The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb asked me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase) to bring (infinitive) some food (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)
- They asked me to bring some food.

The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb wanted Carol (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase) to be (infinitive) the captain (subject complement for Carol, via state of being expressed in infinitive) of the team (prepositional phrase as adjective)
- Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of the team.

Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive phrase could be roughly characterized as the "subject" of the action or state expressed in the infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use the word subject, however, since an infinitive phrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite verb.
Also notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the objective case (me, not I, in the fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for the infinitive phrase; others can't have an actor. Still other verbs can go either way, as the charts below illustrate.

Verbs that take infinitive objects without actors:
Agree
Begin
continue
decide
Fail
Hesitate
hope
intend
Learn
Neglect
offer
plan
Prefer
Pretend
promise
refuse
remember
Start
try


Examples:
- Most students plan to study.
- We began to learn.
- They offered to pay.
- They neglected to pay.
- She promised to return.

In all of these examples no actor can come between the italicized main (finite) verb and the infinitive direct-object phrase.

Verbs that take infinitive objects with actors:
Advise
Allow
convince
remind
encourage
Force
hire
teach
Instruct
Invite
permit
tell
Implore
Incite
appoint
order

Examples:
- He reminded me to buy milk.
- Their fathers advise them to study.
- She forced the defendant to admit the truth.
- You've convinced the director of the program to change her position.
- I invite you to consider the evidence.

In all of these examples an actor is required after the italicized main (finite) verb and before the infinitive direct-object phrase.

Verbs that use either pattern:
ask
expect
(would) like
want
need

Examples:
- I asked to see the records.
- I asked him to show me the records.
- Trent expected his group to win.
- Trent expected to win.
- Brenda likes to drive fast.
- Brenda likes her friend to drive fast.

In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take an infinitive object with or without an actor.

Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a sentence, it should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase.
- To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar.
- To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience.

Points to remember
- An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
- An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s), complement(s), and/or actor(s).
- An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at the beginning of a sentence.

Split infinitives

Split infinitives occurs when additional words are included between to and the verb in an infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting the infinitive to be acceptable, but this practice should be avoided in formal writing.

Examples:
- I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. * (unacceptable). On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised)
- I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal contexts)I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal contexts)

Sources:

Anonymous. (2009). Grammar. [online]. Available: http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-gerunds.htm
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CHAPTER 8: MODALITY

Modals are words that come before verbs. They change the meanings of the verbs in some way. For example, modals can be express ability or possibility.

Use the modals can, could, and may with the base (dictionary) form of the verb.
- He can paint
- She could speak French
- May I see your newspaper?

Can, could and may have different meanings. Can express ability in the present. Can’t is the negative of can.
- Carol can cook well, but she can’t sew.

Could expresses ability in the past. Couldn’t is the negative of could.
- Twenty years ago James could run 100 meters in one minute. Now he can’t.

Can and could also express possibility in the future.
- A : I don’t have time to finish the dishes
B : I can finish them for you

- A : It’s starting to rain
B : We could take a taxi

Use may I, can I or could I to make polite requests.
- May I (please) borrow your pen?
- Can I (please) borrow your pen?
- Could I (please) borrow your pen?
-
Use may I or can I to offer help.

NOTE : May is more formal than can or could.
- May I help you?
- Can I help you?

When can is followed by a base-form verb, we can often pronounce it / ken / and stress the base-form verb.
- We can dance.

In sentence with can’t followed by a base-form verb, we can stress both can’t and the base-form verb.
- We can’t dance.

Modals: May Or Might For Possibility

Use may or might to express possibility about the future or the present. May and might have same meaning, but may means something is a little more possible than might does.
- I might be late. (It’s possible)
- I may be late. (It’s more possible)
- I’ll probably late. (It’s likely)
- I will be late. (It’s definite)

You can also use may (but not might) to give, refuse, or ask for permission.
- You may use a pencil to take this test.
- You may not use your dictionary during this test.
- May I smoke.

You cannot use may or might to ask yes / no questions about possibility.
- There are no contractions for may or might.

Sources:

Anonymous. (2009). Grammar. [online]. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modality

Swan, M. (2001). The Good Grammar Book. Oxford University Press. New York
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CHAPTER 9: PASSIVE VOICE

Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known; however, who or what is performing the action.

Example: My bike was stolen.

In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows:

Example: A mistake was made.

In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. you have made a mistake.).

Form of Passive

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)

Example: A letter was written.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
- the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
- the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
- the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Examples of Passive

Simple Present

Active:
Subject: Rita
Verb: writes
Object: a letter.

Passive:
Subject: A letter
Verb: is written
Object: by Rita.

Simple Past

Active:
Subject: Rita
Verb: wrote
Object: a letter.

Passive:
Subject: A letter
Verb: was written
Object: by Rita.

Present Perfect

Active:
Subject: Rita
Verb: has written
Object: a letter.

Passive:
Subject: A letter
Verb: has been written
Object: by Rita.

Future I

Active:
Subject: Rita
Verb: will write
Object: a letter.

Passive:
Subject: A letter
Verb: will be written
Object: by Rita.

Present Progressive

Active:
Subject: Rita
Verb: is writing
Object: a letter.

Passive:
Subject: A letter
Verb: is being written
Object: by Rita.

Past Progressive

Active:
Subject: Rita
Verb: was writing
Object: a letter.

Passive:
Subject: A letter
Verb: was being written
Object: by Rita.

Past Perfect

Active:
Subject: Rita
Verb: had written
Object: a letter.

Passive:
Subject: A letter
Verb: had been written
Object: by Rita.

Future II

Active:
Subject: Rita
Verb: will have written
Object: a letter.

Passive:
Subject: A letter
Verb: will have been written
Object: by Rita.

Conditional I

Active:
Subject: Rita
Verb: would write
Object: a letter.

Passive:
Subject: A letter
Verb: would be written
Object: by Rita.

Conditional II

Active:
Subject: Rita
Verb: would have written
Object: a letter.

Passive:
Subject: A letter
Verb: would have been written
Object: by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.

Active:
Subject: Rita
Verb: wrote
Object 1: a letter
Object 2: to me.

Passive:
Subject: A letter
Verb: was written
Object 1: to me
Object 2: by Rita.

Passive:
Subject: I
Verb: was written
Object 1: a letter
Object 2: by Rita.

As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. That’s why it is usually dropped.

Personal and Impersonal Passive

Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.

Example: They build houses. – Houses are built.

Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.

Example: he says – it is said

Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know).

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men.

Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men.
The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).

Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.

Sources:

Anonymous, (2009). Grammar. [online]. Available: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/passive.htm

J. Dixson, R. (2004). Grammar Essentials : Graded Exercises In English. Pearson Education, 10 Bank Street, White Plains, New York
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CHAPTER 10: REPORTED SPEECH

When we copy somebody’s exact words to write down what they said, or thought, this is known as direct speech. Sentences in direct speech are always marked by speech mark. (‘ ’).

Example:
- ‘It isn’t Friday today,’ said my father.

Very often, however, we do not want to copy the person’s exact words. Instead, we describe what they said or thought in our own words:
- My father said that it wasn’t Friday that day.

This is known as indirect or reported speech. Sentences in reported speech usually begin with expression like He said that…, He believed that…, or He wondered whether… They do not use speech marks.

When writing reported speech, use your common sense. You may need to change ‘I’ to ‘he’ or ‘she’; you may need to change ‘today’ to ‘that day’; you may need to change a verb tense.

Sources:

Anonymous. (2009). Grammar, [online]. Available: http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech
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CHAPTER 11: ADJECTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES

Like a single-word adjective, an adjectival clause describes a noun (in the sentence's main clause) and answers one of these questions
which one? what kind?

An adjectival clause usually begins with a relative pronoun, which makes the clause subordinate (dependent).

Common relative pronouns:
that which who whom whose

NOTE: Use who, whom, and whose to describe people.
Use that and which to describe things.

Adjectival clauses always follow the person, place, or thing they describe, usually immediately.
Example of adjectival clause answering which one?
- Joe read the book that I gave him.


Main clause adjectival clause describing book

Which book did Joe read?
Answer: the one that I gave him

Example of adjectival clause answering what kind?
- A politician who is trustworthy has the support of the people.


Adjectival clause describing politician
What kind of politician has the support of the people?
Answer: one who is trustworthy.

Adjectival clauses may also begin with selected subordinating conjunctions:
when - to describe a time
Spring is the season when everything blooms


Main clause adjective clause describing season

where - to describe a place
- The house where I was born has been turned into apartments.



Adjective clause describing house

Main clause


why - to describe a reason
we did not understand the reason why our experiment failed.



Main clause adjectival clause experiment reason

Comma use with adjectival clauses depends upon essentiality of the adjectival clause.

If the adjectival clause is essential (or "needed"), no commas should be used to separate it from the main clause.
Generally, essential adjectival clauses should not begin with which.

Examples:
- People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.




Adjectival clause describing people
Main clause

- We really enjoy the tour that we took.



Main clause adjectival clause describing tour

Since the adjectival clauses in the above examples are needed to clarify the noun that they describe, they are essential and should not be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas.

If the adjectival clause is nonessential (or "not needed"), commas should separate it from the main clause.
Nonessential adjectival clauses should not begin with that.
Examples:
- Mount Etna, which is located in Italy, was once an active volcano.




Adjectival clause describing Mount Etna
Main clause

Since the adjectival clauses in the above examples are not needed to clarify the noun that they describe, they are nonessential and should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas.
Note the difference between the sentences in each pair:

Examples:
- George fell in love with someone who lives in Alaska



Main clause adjectival clause describing someone
essential - no comma

George fell in love with Marilyn, who lives in Alaska



Main clause adjectival clause describing someone
Non - essential no – comma

George boarded a freighter that was headed for Boston.



Main clause adjectival clause describing freighter
Essential no – comma

George visited Harvard University, which is located in Boston.



Main clause adjectival clause describing Harvard University
Non – essential no - comma

Sources:

Anonymous. (2009). Grammar. [online]. Available: http://www.towson.edu/ows/AdvAdjNomClause.html

Leong, G. C. (2009, May 22) “Having Productive Meetings”. Starbiz, B9

COMPONENT 2 WRITING Chapter 1 - 13

Chapter 1: Developing a Paragraph from Topic Sentences

There are many ways in which paragraph can be developed such as descriptive, developing by means of specific details and example. It also can be argumentative or persuasive. They may present facts or give example to support the topic sentences. Some paragraphs can be analytic, exploring cause and effect, or comparing and contrasting different things. The descriptive paragraph, for example may also be persuasive.

Descriptive paragraph

A descriptive paragraph attempts to persuade a reader about a particular point. Just as a thesis is the main idea and organizing principle of an essay, the dominant impression of descriptive paragraph is the overall impression it makes on an audience. A good descriptive paragraph is not just at random catalogue of fact about a subject it makes sense out of the descriptive details by showing how they convey a powerful impression of the subject. The specific detail help the reader to grasp the dominant or general impression that he was angry through the inclusion of specific details such as narrowed eyes, a tightly set or downturned mouth and drenched fists. When you develop a descriptive paragraph you can proceed in different ways. You can ask yourself what overall impression you want to convey and select details that suit your purpose or you can get down many different details and then find the overall impression developing from them.

Source:

Alice’s. (2006). Writing Academic Edition, Pearson Longman
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Chapter 2: Writing an Expository / Explanation Essay

Expository writing is a type of writing, the purpose of which is to inform, explain, describe, or define the author’s subject to the reader. Expository text is meant to deposit information and is the most frequently used type of writing by students in colleges and universities. Expository essay focused on its topic and list events in chronological order. For example are cooking instructions, driving direction, and instructions on performing a task. Key words such as first, after, next, then and last usually signal sequential writing. Personal pronouns may be used in such writing, if needed.

There are several types of expository essay:

Sequence essay

This sequence essay also known as the ‘process’ essay but not a collection and is a form of expository writing that is used if the author intent to inform his or her reader by listing the order of step in process or listing events in chronological order.

Descriptive essay

This essay enables reader to feel whatever you are describing. The writer should use all of the senses: sight, smell, touch, hearing and taste. Writer should also think about what makes the place you are describing important.

Where are all the other objects compared to the one you are describing?
What do you want the reader feel?
Is your essay descriptive enough to allow the reader to create a mental image in their mind?
What does the setting remind you?

All of the above criteria should include in the descriptive essay to make the essay more effective.

Classification essay:

Classification is an organizational strategy in which authors arrange group of object or ideas according to a common topic in detail. Placing different object or ideas in categories is a type of classification.

Cause and effect essay:

Cause and effect writing identifies the reason for something occurring and list what occur because of that reason. This is also known as analysis. Analysis occurs when a sentence describing the cause, is either next to, or combine with an effect. Or depicts a ‘causal chain’. Several event (causes) leading to another event (effect)

Sources:

Anonymous. (2008) Expository writing. Text/html [Online] Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expository_writing.html.

Anonymous. Expository essay and prompt Text/html [Online]. Available: http://www.geocities.com/soho/Atrium/1437/expo.html.
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Chapter 3: Thesis Statements

Formulating a Thesis or Main Idea

A thesis is a statement, often placed near the start of your essay, which expresses your point of view about the topic. It can state a definite opinion for or against something. We will discuss this type of thesis in future chapters, especially when we consider persuasive writing, which aims to convince an audience to accept a certain opinion, but other types of writing also need a central idea to give them a focus and make them a focus and make them comprehensible to a reader.

Directional Thesis

A thesis where a writer use in discussing a topic about which he or she does not have a definite opinion. The aim of this type of statement is to show the audience which way the essay is going, to point out what ideas and fact will be discussed, and to give shape and direction to the essay, but not to take a stand on a controversial matter.

A thesis restricts the scope of the essay to manageable limits. It prevents the essay from trying to do too many things and consequently not doing any of them well.
When formulating a thesis, remember the following considerations:

Narrowing and Focusing the Topic

-When we discussed narrowing and focusing previously, we were working toward developing the limiting and controlling main idea that makes a good thesis.

The Writer’s Purpose

-To a large extent, your thesis is shaped by what you intend to do in your essay.

The Writer’s Audience

-A thesis is also shaped to an extent by the writer’s audience. As noted before, one way to shape your writing is to ask what your readers need to learn about your subject and what you hope convey to them. By answering these questions, you are on the way to formulating a thesis.

Example:

Black Elk Speaks accurately represents Indian lifestyle through its attention to cultural detail, its use of Indian words and its direct quotes from Black Elk.

Sources:

Anonymous. Thesis statement Text/html [Online].available: http//www.uotawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/partopic.html.

Anonymous. Thesis statement Text/html [Online]. Available: http//:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thesis statement.
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Chapter 4: Topic Sentences

All three paragraphs start out well with a topic sentence. Topic sentences is a sentences whose main idea or claim control the rest of the paragraph, the body of a paragraph explains, develops or supports with evidence the topic sentences main idea or claim. The topic sentence is usually the first sentences of paragraph, but not necessarily. It may come for example, after transition sentence; it may even come at the end of paragraph.

Here are three important points to remember about a topic sentence:-

1. Topic sentence is a complete sentence; that is, it contains at least one subject and one subject and one verb. The following is not a complete sentence because it does not have a verb :-

How to register for college classes

2. A topic sentence contains both a topic and controlling idea. It names the topic and then limits the topic to a specific area to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph.

Topic controlling idea
Registering for college classes can be a frustrating experience for new students.

3. A topic sentence is the most general statement in the paragraph because it gives only the main idea. It does not give any specific details.

The Arabic origin of many English words is not always obvious.

Topic sentences are not the only way to organize a paragraph, and not all paragraphs need topic sentence. For example, paragraphs that describes. Narrates or details the steps in an experiment do not usually need topic sentences. Topic sentences are particularly useful for writers who have difficulties developing focused, unified paragraphs. Topic sentences help writer develop a main idea and perhaps most importantly, that help these writers stay focused and keep paragraphs manageable.

Example of topic sentence is:-

Soon after the spraying had ended (topic sentences 1) there were unmistakable sign that all was not well (topic sentences 2). Within two days dead and dying fish, including many young Salmon, were found along the banks of the stream. Brook trout also appeared among the dead fish, and along the roads and in the woods birds were dying. All the life of the stream was stilled (topic sentences 3). Before the spraying there had been a rich assortment of the water life that forms the food of salmon and trout.
Or
Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, not always have the same emotional meaning. For example, the stingy and frugal both means “careful with money”. However calling someone stingy is an insult, but calling someone frugal is a compliment. Similarly, a person want to be slender but not skinny, aggressive but not pushy. Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not synonymous at all.

Sources:

Anonymous. Topic Sentences Text/html [Online].Available.http//grammar.ccc.coment.edu/grammar/paragraphs.html.

Anonymous. Topic Sentence Text/html [Online]. Available: http//:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/topic sentence.

Anonymous. Topic sentence Text/html [Online]. Available: http//:www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writeent/hypergrammar/partopic.htm

lavane, F.1989. Writing with style, Rhetoric reader, Ivene Donanve
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Chapter 5: Preparing an Outline

How to write an outline

SAMPLE OUTLINE

I. Thesis: The negative effects of television are single parents put the responsibility to others, model of life interactions are exaggerated and children have high probability of damaging their eyes.

- The thesis is stated in the first section, which in the introduction.

II. Single parents put their responsibility to others.
A. Eager to spent time with their child
B. Kids’ freedom to do what they want
C. TV plays role like a babysitter
D. Kids learn more principle at young age
1. Observation
a. 100000 violent acts
b. 33000 murders

III. Model of life interaction are exaggerated
A. Sexual scenes may lead to early sexual contacts
B. They take it as a reality
C. Cause trauma to young consciousness
D. Produce unbalanced and unhealthy conduct
E. Numerous eating disorders
1. Cause diseases
a. Bulimia
b. Anorexia
c. Self-mutilation

IV. High probability of damaging they eye
A. Spoiling of their hearing
B. Watch per hours may give deep impact.
1. On the personality
2. Causing psychological
3. Psychological problems
C. Scared what they observe can cause
1. Depression
2. Emotional misbalance

- The body follows the introduction, and breaks down the points the author wishes to make.

- Note them some section have subdivisions, others do nit, depending on their demands of the paper.

- In this outline I, II, and IV all have similar structure, but this will not necessarily be true for a papers. Some may only have three major sections. Other more than five.

V. Conclusion :
The negative effects of television are single parents put their responsibility to others, model of life interactions are exaggerated and children have high probability of damaging their eyes.

- Your conclusion should restate your thesis, and never introduce new material.

Sources:

Anonymous. (2007). How to prepare an outline. Text/html [Online]. Available: http://www.albany.edu/eas/170/outline.html [2005 October 10]

Anonymous. (2007). Outline. Text/html [Online]. Available: http://www.essaywritinghelp.com/outline.html [2007 December 12]
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Chapter 6: Writing an Argumentative Essay

The argumentative essay, although bearing many similarities to the persuasive (argument) essay, has several distinct differences.

The argumentative essay may be formatted in several ways:

Example 1-Claim and Counter Claim

INTRODUCTION

- Introduce the topic and state or explain the question. State both the claim (your position) and the counter claim (the opposing position)
- Start building a strong case by refuting or disproving the opposing position.

- Use one paragraph to state each counter point, following your statement with related evidences that refutes the point.

- Present your case in the second section of the body.

- Use one paragraph to state each of your points, following your statement with the evidences that proves or supports your point.

- The conclusion of this format is a restatement of your claim and a summary of the information that supports it.

I. Introduction (claim and counter claim statement)

II. Body part I
A. First counter point and refuting information
B. Second counter point and refuting information
C. Third counter point and refuting information

III. Body part II
A. First point and supporting information
B. Second point and supporting information
C. Third point and supporting information

IV. Conclusion – Restatement of claim and summary of the main ideas


Example 2 – The Cluster Format

- Introduce the topic and state or explain the question.

- Start the first section of the body with your statement of claim or position.

- In this format, you begin by stating and supporting your points. Use one paragraph to state each of your points, following your statement with the evidence that proves or supports your point.

- Follow each point with an opposing view related to that point and evidence that supports the objection. Use one paragraph for each counter point and its evidences.

- After you have finished presenting all points, counter points and evidence and logic that shows why the objections are invalid. If the opposing view is valid, acknowledge it as so but use you evidences to show that it’s somehow unattractive and that your position is the more desirable of the two.

- Use one paragraph to rebut each counter claim.

- The conclusion of this format is a restatement of your claim, a summary of supporting information and an assessment of rebuttals.

I. Introduction (Claim and counter claim statement)

II. Body part I – Presenting the Case
A. Statement of the claim
B. First point and supporting information
C. First point opposition and refuting evidence.
D. Second point and supporting information
E. Second point opposition and refuting
F. Third point and supporting information
G. Third point opposition and refuting evidence

III. Body part II – Author’s rebuttal
A. First point rebuttal
B. Second point rebuttal
C. Third point rebuttal

IV. Conclusion

Example 3 – The Alternating Format

- Introduce the topic and state or explain the question.

- Start the body with your statement of claim or position.

- In this format, you begin by stating and supporting your points. Use one paragraph to state each of your points, following your statement with the evidence that proves or supports your point.

- Follow each point with an opposing view related to that point and evidence that supports the objection. Use one paragraph for each counter points and its evidence.

- Follow each objection with your rebuttal. Use one paragraph to rebut each counter claim.

- The conclusion of this format is restatement of your claim, a summary of supporting information and an assessment of rebuttals.

I. Introduction (Claim and counter claim statement)

II. Body
A. Statement of the claim
B. First point and supporting information
C. First point opposition and refuting evidence
D. First rebuttal and supporting information
E. Second point and supporting information
F. Second point opposition and refuting evidence
G. Second rebuttal and supporting information

III. Conclusion

Example of an Argumentative Essay

Television has become a member of almost every single family and our planet. Not just an ordinary member, but a very important one, because the time spent next to it other family member. You do not have to apply any efforts to talk or listen to complaints while communicating with it. You do not have to play with your little son after a hard working day.

You can simply turn the TV on everything is done: kids are quiet, your wife is not complaining and you feel absolute happy. It is so simple that it has become integral part of the culture of every family. It is senseless to deny the all-embracing negative effects the existence of television negative effects facts that are well known to every single parent, but are ignored by them in order to the responsibility for bringing up kids and showing them examples through interaction on the shoulders of somebody else. Contemporary parents work a lot, but when they come back home they are not eager to spend time with their child. The consequences of this fact are following: kids are given to themselves and watch everything they want or TV plays a role of a babysitter. Therefore children learn moral principles from the television, where by the age of 16 they observe 100,000 violent acts and 33,000 murders.

The modals of life interaction given in the television are very exaggerated and garbled. Children learn that they can gain what they want through being stronger and subordinating other people through killing and that even if you are a “good” guy killing is o.k. Statistics have proved that the growth of time spent next to the TV-set scales up the development of aggression. Many years before the examples of imitation for children were their own parent now these examples come from hit-thrillers and violent films where the personages imitated are cruel, impartial and often purely negative personages. Nowadays, resulting this phenomenon, children instead of playing leap-and-frog on the open air pretend to be “terminators” and run around “killing” each other. The fact of child’s identification with a “negative” destructive image has a vital impact on the development of his or her personality. Violence becomes an ordinary way on interaction, alongside with anger. Early exposure to sexual scenes may lead to early sexual contacts, with destroy the healthy development of child. Young people are pressured by such an amount of sexual scenes and these scenes normalize casual sexual encounters. They do not to evaluate what they see- they take it as the reality. All the listed above may cause a trauma to a young consciousness and in combination with the violence may produce an unbalanced and unhealthy conduct. We do not have to go far away for examples when kids get guns and go their schools shooting the teachers and schoolmates. This becomes a call to get somebody’s attention on them, the result on the TV violence and examples influences that overfills their minds. Television has also a great influence on the self-image of people watching. We see perfectly shaped bodies hundreds of times per day. All the men shown on the TV screen have big muscles and handsome, and all the women shown are very skinny and their faces and bodies look like a complete perfection. This can caused numerous eating disorders, especially in the teenage group. Such things are bulimia, anorexia and self-mutilation became a well- spread phenomenon.

A person especially a child that spends a lot of time next to the TV sets has a very high probability of damaging the eye mechanics and the ability to focus and pay attention. Another negative influence that is connected with the sight is the spoiling of the hearing due to the shortage of auditory stimulation. Even if the programs watched are not violent, if they watched per hours may have a deep impact on the personality, causing psychological and physiological problems. All the hidden effects in the films and commercials subconsciously depress children and grown-ups. Another reaction of a child the TV violence besides his aggression is fair. A child or a person may become so much scared of what they had observed in television that it might cause their depression and emotional misbalanced. Television prevents children from doing their homework and adults from completing their work influencing in a very bad manner the school grades and work productivity. It lowers the overage level of physical fitness of a person, breaking the coordination. Children being attached to the TV-set loose the possibility to the world through nature, games, sports, etc. They do not feel the world with all its colours and peculiarities. They do not read, and get acquainted with the unforgettable characters of Robinson Crusoe or Tom Sawyer. They do not learn the messages that a book carries inside. Due to that the personality of a person looses a very important piece and may not by call complete. Television has converted or lives into a nightmare. A nightmare where children kill not only the TV screen and adults lose their will sitting next to the TV-set eating “junk food”. It is a nightmare where violent television performs the role of the parents. What else can be said to show that television destroys the healthy development of a child’s personality. All the negative effects listed above concern grownups as well, but through the special sensitivity of children towards the influences we wanted to show to the full the destructive power of television. It has turned our lives into an addiction that suppresses the beauty our real life by the violent substitution. And can without any doubts be called one of the worst inventions of modern times.

Sources:

Anonymous (2007). The negative effects on television. Text/html [Online].Available: http://www.free essays.tv/Argumentative .html [2007 December 20]

Anonymous (2007). Writing an Argumentative essay. Text/html [Online].Available: http://www.essaywritinghelp.com/Argumentative .html [2007 December 12]
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Chapter 7: Summarizing

What Is It?

To summarize is to put in your own words a shortened version of written or spoken material, stating the main points and leaving out everything that is not essential. Summarizing is more than retelling; it involves analyzing information, distinguishing important from unimportant elements and translating large chunks of information into a few short cohesive sentences. Fiction and nonfiction texts, media, conversations, meetings, and events can all be summarized.

Steps to summarize:

1. Start by skimming the text to get an idea of what the text is about.
2. Cross out sentences that are not necessary or that are redundant to make it easy for us to pull out what is crucial to the message of the piece.
3. Mark key words and phrases and jot down notes about the main idea and look for signal words such as therefore, in conclusion, or in summary.
4. Verbally summarize the nonfiction piece to a peer.
5. Lastly, re-read the text and write a summary paragraph. State the text's main idea in the first sentence and include the important information. Don’t included our own opinions of their own or sentences word-for-word from the original text.

Example of a summary:

Watching television brings many negative effects to us. First, the time spent watching television is more than time spent together between the family members. For children, watching brings violent character to them when they watch too many violent movies. It also exposes children to early sexual contacts and influence on the self-image which cause numerous eating disorders. For a young child, watching television can damage their eyes, reduce the ability to pay attention and also damage their hearing due to the shortage of auditory stimulation. What we had observed on the television can cause depression and emotional imbalance and also lowers the average level of physical fitness of our body.

Sources:

Anonymous. (2002). How to summarize a passage. Text/html. [Online]. Available: http://www.teachervision.com/skill-builder/reading-comprehension/48785.html [2002 September 20]

Anonymous. (2001). Writing Across the World. Text/html [Online].Available: http://www.readwritethink.org/.html [2001 July 4]
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Chapter 8: Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing

· One way to use a text in your own writing without directly quoting source material.

A paraphrase is

§ Your own rendition of essentials information and ideas of expressed by someone else, presented in a new form.
§ One legitimate way when accompanied by accurate documentation to borrow from a source
§ A more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses on a single main idea.

Steps to effective paraphrasing:

1. Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.
2. Set the original aside and write your paraphrase on a note card.
3. Write a key word or phrase to indicate the subject of your paraphrase.
4. Check your rendition with the original to make sure that your version accurately expresses all the essential information.
5. Use the quotation marks to identify any unique term of phraseology you have borrowed exactly from the source.
6. Record the source (including the page) on your note card so that you can credit it easily if you decide to incorporate the material into your paper.

Examples of paraphrasing

Original passage:

The base of the tomorrow’s society is children today. And the way they develop depends on how are world is going to look like tomorrow.

Paraphrased:

The developments of children depends on the society surrounding them as they will be the future generation for the society

Original passage:

The fact of child’s identification with a negative destructive image has a vital impact on the development of his or her personality. Violence becomes an ordinary way of interaction alongside with anger.

Paraphrased:

Anger will develop the identify of someone to become violence and this will give bad impact especially to the child’s identification

Original passage:

A person especially a child that spends a lot of time next to the TV-set has a very high probability of damaging their eyes mechanics and ability to focus and pay attention.

Paraphrased:

Many negative effects such as damaging their eyes mechanics if the person especially children spend their time in front of television

Original passage:

Television prevents children from doing their homework and adults from completing their work, influencing in a very bad manner the school grades and work productivity. It lowers the average level of physical fitness of a person breaking coordination.

Paraphrased:

Television makes children’s from finish their homework, adults not completing their works and will affect their school grades and work productivity. The physical fitness of a person will be decreased.

Original passage:

All the negative effects listed above concern grownups as well, but through the special the sensitivity of children’s towards the influences we wanted to show to the full the destructive power of television. It has turned our lives into an addiction that suppresses the beauty of our real life by the violent substitution. And can without any doubt be called one of the worst inventions of the modern times.

Paraphrased:

Television has given many bad impacts to all the society especially to the children because it changes the identity and developments of the children. No wonder, if television will be called as the worst technologies of modern times.

Sources:

Anonymous. (2007). Paraphrase: Write It in Your Own Words. Text/html [Online].Available:http://www.library.duke.edu/research/plagiarism/cite/paraphrase.html [2007 November 10]

Anonymous. (2007). Paraphrase. Text/html [Online]. Available: http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/paraphrase.html [2009 September 13]
_______________________________

Chapter 9: Writing a Discussive Essay

What is a Discussive essay?

A discussive essay or known as discursive essay is a piece of formal writing presenting a discussion on a particular problem.

Types of a discussive or discursive essay

1. Opinion essay: it requires the author’s opinion on a topic which is stated in the introductory paragraph
2. For and against essay: it represents a reader with a through consideration of the topic from opposing point of view.
3. Essay suggestion solution to a problem: it discusses problem and find their solution.

Components of a discussive or discussive essay

1. Title
- Contain key words about content and process.
2. Introduction
- This introduces the issues to be discussed and give essential background information.
3. Main body
- You should use evidence to support and challenge the issue you cover in this section, referencing your source appropriately.
4. Conclusion
- This sums up how the points in the body of your essay have made a case both for and against the argument.

Source:

Anonymous. (2009). Discussion Essay-Enlighten, Express, Explain! [Online]. Available:http://www.discussion_essay.php.htm.enow.com.html.[2009, September 11]
____________________________________

Chapter 10: Synthesizing

Synthesizing is an important and complex skill require in academic writing. It involves combining ideas from a range of sources in order to group and present common ideas or argument. It is a necessary skill used in essay, literature review and other form of academic writing.

Unlike summarizing and paraphrasing, this only used one author’s ideas at a time. Synthesizing combines ideas from one than one text or source.

Synthesizing allows you to:
1. Combine information and ideas from multiply sources to develop and strengthen your arguments.
2. Demonstrate that you have read widely on the topics.
3. Use and cite multiply sources.

How to synthesize

1. Read revelent material.
2. Make brief note using key point or keyword. This make easier to compare and contrast relevant information.
3. Identify common ideas.
4. Cite (references) the entire author you have used.

Writing a synthesis from notes

Supporting the contention that English is the dominant world language, Bond (2002) and Robertson (2003) point out its importance as the medium of international communication in business, technology and other global forums. However, other argue that despite its apparent dominance, English is not the global language when the number of native speakers of other language, e.g. Chinese are considered (Havir 1999: Kerstjens 2000).

Source:
Anonymous. [n.d]. Synthesizing. [Online]. Available: http://www.disweb.rmit.edu.au/isu/content/4_writingskills/writing_tuts/synthesizing_LL/model.html.[2009, September 11]
___________________________________

Chapter 11: Documenting

What to document?

· Document all contributions made by other writers whose work you are drawing from. These contributions include the following :

a. A direct quote from a source, whether primary or secondary.
b. A summary or paraphrase of a source.

What not to document

a. Your own ideas
b. Common knowledge (i.e. what an average college graduate who has not done this research would know – e.g. Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
c. Information that you have seen in multiple sources (Shakespeare’s plays were actually written by Queen Elizabeth),(Shakespeare died in 1616 – unless this information is controversial)

Things to keep in mind while doing research

a. Use direct quotes sparingly. The more that you summarize and paraphrase the better because this is your voice.
b. Close paraphrase are the most common form of plagiarism. To avoid this, read your source, close your book takes notes from memory. Then reopen your book and check your notes accuracy.

Specifics
a. Documenting means following complex rules. It also depends on what discipline you are writing in, and most importantly, what your instructor expects.
b. Documenting sources consists of two parts :
i. The individual documentation of each quote or paraphrase.
ii. A list of works that you have cited or consulted.

Cited words or ideas that are not your owns

1. Whenever you refer to another’s author research, cite the original source. To site sources using APA format, give the author’s last name and the date of publication. If the author’s name is already mentioned in the sentence, parentheses may include the year only. When more than one author is cited, the symbol “&” is used in parentheses before the final author’s name. Do not use “et al.” unless there are three or more authors, all of whom were listed in previous citation in your paper. When there are six or more authors, use “et al.” in the first and all subsequent citations.

Examples:

o In a recent study of reaction times (Rogers,1994)
o Roger (1994) compared reaction times
o In another study (Hashroudi,Chrosniak, & Schwartz,1991)
o Confirming their hypothesis, Hashroudi et al. (1991) found

2. After quotation, include the page number in your internal documentation. A parenthetical citation following quotation or paraphrase should include the author’s last name, the date of the source, and the page number. If the author’s name and the date are mentioned in your remarks prefacing the quotation, place only the page number in parentheses. Make sure to enclose short quotations (fewer than 40 words) inside quotation marks.

Example:

One researcher found that “the placebo effect”... disappeared when behaviors were studied in their manner” (Miele, 1993, p.276)

3. Long quotations (longer than 40 words) are presented in block format. Begin the quoted material on a new line and indent five spaces from the left. Double space and do not use quotation marks.

Example:

Miele (1993) found the following:

The “placebo effect”, which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner. Furthermore, the behaviors were never exhibited again, even when drugs were administered. Earlier studies, (e.g. Abdullah, 1994; Fox, 1979) were clearly premature in attributing the results to a placebo effect. (p.276)

Sources:

Anonymous. (2009). Documenting Sources. [Online]. Available: http://www.gmv.edu/departments/writingcenter/handouts.documents.html.%5b2009,September,11]

Anonymous. (2009). Documenting. [Online]. Available: http://www.ccis.edu/department/Writing Center/documents/apa.html.[no date]
____________________________________

Chapter 12: Editing Skills

Editing is the process of selecting and preparing language, images, sound, video, or film through processes of correction, condensation, organization, and other modifications in various media. A person who edits is called an editor. In a sense, the editing process originates with the idea for the work itself and continues in the relationship between the author and the editor. Editing is, therefore, also a practice that includes creative skills, human relations, and a precise set of methods.

Error 1: Commas in introductory element
Rule: When a sentence opens with an introductory word, phrase or clause, readers usually need a small pause between the introductory elements and the main part of the sentence. This pause is most often signaled by a comma.

Examples:
1. Incorrect: Within time I was playing basketball like a professional.
Correct: Within time, I was playing basketball like a professional.
2. Incorrect: Some people eat to live others live to eat.
Correct: Some people eat to live, others live to eat.

Error 2: Use pronouns to refer to nouns in an agreement
Rule: These nouns are called antecedents, and pronouns should always agree with their antecedents.

Example:
1. Incorrect: The team believed they could win.
Correct: The team believed it could win.

Error 3: Write sentences that are not parallel
Rule: The elements that should be parallel in this sentence are the verbs, wrote, mailed, and poured. They are all past tense. The verb "had poured" is not parallel with the other verbs in the sentence. It is past perfect.

Examples:
1. Incorrect: Earlier this morning, she wrote three letters, mailed them and had poured her a cup of coffee.
Correct: Earlier this morning, she wrote three letters, mailed them and poured herself a cup of coffee.
2. Incorrect: A lawyer should be logical, articulate and have a quick wit.
Correct: A lawyer should be logical, articulate and quick-witted.

Word Choice

1. Who, whom
These are two pronouns that are often used incorrectly, particularly in spoken English. Who is the subjective case and should be used as the subject of a sentence or clause.

Examples:
a. Who is free to run an errand?
b. I don't know who can do that.
Whom is objective and should be used as the object of a sentence, phrase or clause.

Examples:
a. Whom do you trust?
b. The coach was disappointed in Smith, of whom he expected much.

2. Like as, as if
These words are often use interchangeably and consequently incorrectly. Like is a preposition and should have an object. As and as if are conjunctions and should be used to join clauses. The problem most often arises when like is used as a conjunction.

Example:
Incorrect: I pretended like I knew what I was talking about.
Correct: I pretended as if I knew what I was talking about.

3. Comparatives and superlatives
A comparative form of an adjective is usually made either by adding er to the end of the word or by putting more in front of it. The superlative form is made by adding est to the end of the word or by putting most in front of the word. One of the rules for using comparatives and superlatives is that a comparative form should refer to only two objects. A superlative form should refer to three or more objects.
Examples:
Incorrect: He looked at the map for Midville and Danville and found that Midville is the closest city to us.
Correct: He looked at the map for Midville and Danville and found that Midville is the closer city to us.

4. Gerund Phrases
Verbs that end in ing and function as nouns. Gerund phrases can act as nouns in a sentence, as in the following:

Example:
a. Writing a good advertisement takes some creativity.
The phrase, "Writing a good advertisement," is a gerund phrase because it contains a gerund and is the subject of the sentence.
b. Writing is a difficult task for many people.
The word "writing" is a gerund because it is a form of the verb "write." It does not act as a verb in the sentence, however. Rather, it is the subject of the sentence.

5. Use of pronouns after like or as
When pronouns occur after the conjunctions than or as, they should be subjective pronouns if they are the subject of an understood verb.
Examples:
I had a better understanding of the subject than he (did).Mary cannot recite the Gettysburg Address as fast as I (can).

Proper use of words

Less, fewer.
Use fewer with countable items; use less with amounts or things not countable.Affect, effect.
Effect is a verb meaning to produce change, or it is a noun meaning result. Affect is almost always a verb that means to pose or to influence, but it can also be a noun referring to an emotional state. These are two of the most confusing words in English, but careful writers will learn to sort them out.
Like, as.
As is used to introduce clauses; like is a preposition and requires an object.Principal, principle.
Principal means someone or something first in rank, authority, or importance. 'Principle' means a fundamental truth, law or doctrine.Over, more than.
Over and under are best used for spatial relationships. When using figures, more than and less than are better choices.Whose, who's.
Who's is the contraction of who is. Whose is the possessive form of whoIts, it's.
It's is the contraction of it is. Its is the possessive form of the word it.Lay, lie.
Lie is a state of being, while lay is the action word. Lay needs an object to be used correctly.Your, you're.
Your is a pronoun which means belonging to you; you're (a pronoun plus a verb) is a contraction of you are.There, they're, their.
Their is a possessive pronoun; there is an adverb indicating direction; they’re a contraction of the words they and are.
Medium, media.
Medium is the singular form of this word and requires a singular verb; media is the plural form and requires a plural verb.Accept, except.
Except means exclude; accept means to receive.

Spelling and plurals
When a word ends with a consonant and then a -y, the -y is changed to -i and an -es is added (example: army, armies).
When a word ends in a vowel and a -y, you can simply add an -s for the plural (example: bay, bays).
· Compound words without hyphens simply take an -s on the end (cupful, cupfuls), but compound words with a hyphen take the -s on the significant word (son-in-law, sons-in-law).
Never use -'s to form the plural of a word that is fully spelled out.

Tips to improve editing skills

One can improve editing skills by keeping a pocket style manual near your writing space. Such manuals often include common grammatical mistakes, lists of words that are easily confused like “affect/effect,” and pointers on punctuation. Many word processing programs also have grammar programs available, which may point out obvious mistakes or spelling errors.

Editing skills often improve when people read their papers aloud to someone else. Alternately, another person can read a paper to you. Reading should be done slowly so that one can catch missing words and typos. Many find that reading aloud to yourself is not quite as productive, because your mind may naturally fill in missing words or overlook typos.

If you cannot read your work aloud to someone else, then read the paragraphs out of order. Alternately, read each sentence starting from the bottom of your work, and work backwards. This process halts the brain from filling in the blanks because the sentences are read out of context. This can be an excellent exercise for improving editing skills.

A few tips for improving editing skills are the following:
1. Know or possess a list of the most commonly misspelled words.2. Avoid using commas to separate two independent phrases, called comma splicing.3. Avoid using the verb to be, which is called passive construction.4. Strive for clarity by avoiding complicated words.5. Vary sentence length.6. Know a paragraph should work out one idea only.7. Clearly state your central idea at the beginning of paragraphs.8. When possible, let someone else read your work aloud to you, and comment on your work.

Sources:

Anonymous. (2009). Answer. [Online].Available: http://www.answers.com/topic/editing-2#cite_note-1.[2009,October,2nd]

Anonymous. (2009). Editing Skills. [Online].Available: http://www.wisegeek.com/how-can-i-improve-my-editing-skills.html.%5bno date]

Anonymous. (2009). JProf. [Online].Available: http://www.answers.com/topic/editing-2#cite_note-1.[2009,October,2nd]
____________________________________

Chapter 13: In-text citation/References

APA Citation Style

APA style defines that the reference section may only include articles that are cited within the body of an article. This is the distinction between a document having a Reference section and a bibliography, which may incorporate sources which may have been read by the authors as background but not referred to or included in the body of a document.

Journal Article: paginated by issue, online and hardcopy

Devine, P. G., & Sherman, S. J. (1992). Intuitive versus rational judgment and the role of stereotyping in the human condition:

Kirk or Spock? Psychological Inquiry, 3(2), 153-159. doi:10.1207 /s15327965pli0302_13
Journal Article: paginated by volume, website without a DOI

Hodges, F. M. (2003). The promised planet: Alliances and struggles

of the gerontocracy in American television science fiction of the

1960s. The Aging Male, 6, 175-182. Retrieved from

http://www.informaworld.com/TheAgingMale
Magazine Article

Mershon, D. H. (1998, November/December). Star trek on the brain: Alien minds, human minds. American Scientist, 86(6), 585.
Newspaper Article
Di Rado, A. (1995, March 15). Trekking through college: Classes explore modern society using the world of Star trek. Los Angeles Times, pp. A3, A20-A22.

Newspaper Article Website

Ebert, R. (2009, May 6). [Review of the motion picture Star trek, produced by Paramount, 2009]. Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved

from http://rogerebert.suntimes.com
Books : with author

Okuda, M., & Okuda, D. (1993). Star trek chronology: The history of the future. New York, NY: Pocket Books.

Books : no author
Star trek: Four generations of stars, stories, and strange new worlds. (1995). Radnor, PA: News America Publications.
Book Article or Chapter

James, N. E. (1988). Two sides of paradise: The Eden myth according to Kirk and Spock. In D. Palumbo (Ed.), Spectrum of the fantastic (pp. 219-223). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Encyclopedia Article

Sturgeon, T. (1995). Science fiction. In L. T. Lorimer et al. (Eds.), The encyclopedia Americana (Vol. 24, pp. 390-392). Danbury, CT: Grolier.
ERIC Document

Fuss-Reineck, M. (1993). Sibling communication in Star trek: The next generation: Conflicts between brothers. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED364932)

Websites
Epsicokhan, J. (2004, February 20). Confessions of a closet trekkie. Retrieved October 12, 2009, from Jammer's Reviews website: http://www.jammersreviews.com/articles/confessions.php

Websites : with corporate author in the same website
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2009, May 28).

NASA astronaut watches new Star trek movie in space.

Retrieved From http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station

/behindscenes/star_trek .html

Websites : with corporate author in the different website
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Jet Propulsion Laboratory. (2007, May 10). Mission could seek out Spock's home planet. Retrieved from PlanetQuest: Exoplanet Exploration

website:http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/news/planetVulcan.cfm

Websites : with no author
The Roddenberry legacy of human potential: If only, if only. (2007, October 24). Retrieved January 7, 2009, from Star Trek Official Site website: http://www.startrek.com/startrek/view/news/editorials /article/2310913.html

Wiki
Star trek planet classifications. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved January 7, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek_planet _classifications
Blog
Zompist. (2009, September 30). Star wars: Hope not so new anymore [Web log message]. Retrieved from http://zompist.wordpress.com /2009/09/30/star-wars-hope-not-so-new-anymore/
Internet Video

Crusade2267. (2006, November 02). For the uniform: One fan's obsession with Star trek, part 1 [Video file]. Retrieved from http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=ul5q4PTME-M
PowerPoint Presentation

Oard, D. W. (2001). Bringing Star trek to life: Computers that speak

and listen [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from University of

Maryland TerpConnect website:

http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~oard/papers/cpsp118t.ppt

Parenthetical References

The sources that you use should be cited in the text of your paper, either in a parentheses or as part of the text itself.
Example:
During the turbulent 1960s, science fiction programs on television reflected the public's attitudes toward the older generation (Hodges, 2000).

Hodges (2000) discussed how, during the turbulent 1960s, science fiction programs on television reflected the public's attitudes toward the older generation.

In a 2000 article, Hodges discussed how, during the turbulent 1960s, science fiction programs on television reflected the public's attitudes toward the older generation.

The references above refer to the entire source in a general way. If you are referring to a specific part of the source - or quoting exactly - include the specific page number(s) of that part:
Example:
(Hodges, 2000, p. 179)

(Devine & Sherman, 1992, pp. 156-157)

Document has a corporate author:
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 2007, para. 3)

Document has no author:
("The Roddenberry Legacy," 2007, paras. 5-6)
(Star Trek: Four Generations, 1995, pp. 63-66)
("Star Trek Planet Classifications," n.d., Other Classes section, para.2)

Sources with three through five authors.
(Kirk, Spock, McCoy, & Scott, 1966, p. 1701)
(Kirk et al., 1966, p. 1701)

Sources with six authors or more:
(Picard et al., 1987, p. 1701d)

Citation

Reference citations in text are done using parenthetical referencing. Most usually, this involves enclosing the author's surname and the date of publication within parentheses, separated by a comma, generally placed immediately after the reference or at the end of the sentence in which the reference is made.
However, it is also common for the authors to be the subject or object of a sentence. In such a case only the year is in parenthesis. In all cases of citation, author name(s) are always followed immediately by a year, and years are never presented without author name(s) immediately preceding it. In the case of a quotation, the page number is also included in the citation.
Full bibliographic information is then provided in a Reference section at the end of the article.

Single author
Format should be Author's last name followed directly by a comma, then the year of publication. When one makes the reference to the author(s) directly as a part of the narrative, then only the year (and page number if needed) would remain enclosed within parentheses. The same holds for multiple authors.

Examples:
1. A recent study found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling, 2005).
2. Pauling (2005) discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism.

Two authors
Authors should be presented in order that they appear in the published article. If they are cited within closed parentheses, use the ampersand & between them. If not enclosed in parentheses then use expanded "and".

Examples:
1. A recent study found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling & Liu, 2005).

2. Pauling and Liu (2005) discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism.

Three to five authors
With three to five authors, the first reference to an article includes all authors. Subsequent citations in the same document may refer to the article by the principal author only plus "et al”. However , all authors must be present in the references section.

Examples:
1. A recent study found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling, Liu, & Guo, 2005).

2. Pauling, Liu, and Guo (2005) conducted a study that discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism.

3. Pauling et al. (2005) discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism.

4. A recent study found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling et al., 2005).

Six authors or more
The correct format is (First Author et al., Year). In the reference section, all six authors' names should be included.

Example:
1. Pauling et al. (2005) discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism.

Multiple publications, same author
If an author has multiple publications that you wish to cite, you use a comma to separate the years of publication in chronological order (oldest to most recent). If the publications occur in the same year, the Publication Manual recommends using suffixes a, b, c, etc. (note that corresponding letters should be used in the reference list, and these references should be ordered alphabetically by title).

Examples:
1. Recent studies have found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling, 2004, 2005a, 2005b).

2. Pauling (2004, 2005a, 2005b) has conducted studies that have discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholism

Multiple publications, different authors
Follow the rules for one author above, and use a semicolon to separate articles. Citation should first be in alphabetical order of the author, then chronological.

Example:
1. Recent studies found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Alford, 1995; Pauling, 2004, 2005; Sirkis, 2003)

Direct quotes
The same rules as above apply here, the format being (Author, Year, Page Number).

Example:
1. When asked why his behavior had changed so dramatically, Max simply said, "I think it's the reinforcement" (Pauling, 2004, p. 69).

Sources:

APA Style. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved October 13, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_style

Schwartz, B.D. (2010). APA Citation Style. Retrieved October 13, 2009, from Long Island University website: http://www.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workshop/citapa.htm